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Carbon and its Compounds

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 Two or more elements combine
to form compound. There are two
types of compounds- Organic
Compound and Inorganic
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Compounds. Organic compounds
are the one which are made up of
carbon and hydrogen.
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 Covalent Bond
The bond formed by sharing a pair of electrons between two atoms are known
as Covalent Bond. Carbon forms covalent bond. Carbon exists in two forms- as free
state and as combined state. Free form of carbon is found in graphite, diamond and
fullerene. In combined state, carbon exists as Carbon-dioxide, Glucose, Sugar etc.

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 Allotropes of Carbon
Different forms of an element that has same chemical properties
but different physical properties are known as Allotropes. There
are three allotropes of carbon- diamond, graphite and fullerene.
Diamond
Diamond exits as three-dimensional network with strong carbon-
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carbon covalent bonds. Diamond is hard in nature with high
melting point. It shines in presence of light and it is a bad
conductor of electricity. The most common use of diamond is in
making jewellery. It is also used in cutting and drilling tools.
 Graphite
Graphite is made from weak van der wall forces. Each carbon atom is bonded with other three carbon atoms in
order to form hexagonal rings. It serves as good conductor of heat and electricity. It is used as dry lubricant for
machine parts as well as it is used in lead pencils.
Fullerene
It is a hollow cage which exits in the form of sphere. Its structure is similar to fullerene. But along with hexagonal
rings, sometimes pentagonal or heptagonal rings are also present.

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 Two Important Properties of Carbon
Catenation and tetravalency are the two important properties of carbon. Catenation is a property of
carbon by which carbon atoms can link one another via covalent bond and can form long chains, closed
ring or branched chains etc. Carbon atoms can be linked by single, double or triple bonds. Carbon has a
valency of 4 due to which it is known to have tetravalency. Due to this one carbon atom can bond with
other 4 carbon atoms, with other atoms also such as Oxygen, Nitrogen etc.

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 Hydrocarbons
Compounds which are made up of carbon and
hydrogen they are known as Hydrocarbons. There are
two types of hydrocarbons found - Saturated
Hydrocarbons and Unsaturated Hydrocarbons.
Saturated Hydrocarbons consist of single bonds
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between the carbon atoms. For Example, Alkanes.
Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons represented by a
formula, CnH2n+2.
Unsaturated Hydrocarbons are the one with double or
triple bonds between the carbon atoms. For Example,
Alkenes and Alkynes. Alkenes are represented as
CnH2n whereas alkynes are represented as CnH2n-2. Some
saturated hydrocarbons and unsaturated hydrocarbons
are represented as -
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Structure of hydrocarbons can be represented
in the form of electron dot structure as well as
open structures as shown below-

Electron dot structure and open structure of Electron dot structure and open structure of
ethane ethyne
 Carbons Compounds based on the basis of structure
Carbon Compounds can be classified as straight chain compounds,
branched chain compounds and cyclic compounds.They are
represented as -

Straight chain carbon compound

Branched chain compounds

Cyclic carbon compounds
 Functional Groups
One of the hydrogen atoms in
hydrocarbon can be replaced by other
atoms according to their valencies. The
atoms which decides.the properties of the
carbon atoms, are known as Functional
Groups. For Example, Cl, Br, -OH,
Aldehyde, Ketone, Carboxylic Acid etc.
 Homologous Series
Series of compounds in which same
functional group substitutes for the
hydrogen atom in a chain of carbon.

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 Nomenclature of Carbon Compounds
•First of all, identify the number of carbon atoms
in compounds. And in it identify the longest chain
•Then functional group can be indicated by suffix
or prefix.
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•Cyclic hydrocarbon is designated by prefix cyclo.
•If there are two or more different substituents
they are listed in alphabetical order
•If the same substituent occurs more than once,
the location of each point on which the
substituent occurs is given
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 Chemical Properties of Carbon Compounds
Combustion
Carbon along with its compound is used as a
fuel as it burns in presence of oxygen to release
energy. Saturated hydrocarbons produce blue
and non-sooty flame . whereas unsaturated
hydrocarbons produce yellow sooty flame.
CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O
Oxidation
Alcohol can be oxidized to aldehydes whereas
aldehydes in turn can be oxidized to carboxylic
acid. Oxidizing agent such as potassium
permanganate can be used for oxidation.
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 Addition Reaction
Hydrogenation of vegetable oil is an example
of addition reaction. Addition of hydrogen in
presence of catalyst such as nickel or
palladium. This converts oil into ghee.
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 Substitution Reaction
When one atom in hydrocarbon is replaced by chlorine,
bromine, etc. this is known as Substitution Reaction

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 Important Carbon Compounds: Ethanol and Ethanoic
Acid
Ethanol is a volatile liquid with low melting point.
It reacts with sodium to form sodium ethoxide

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This above reaction is used to test the
presence of ethanol by the evolution of
hydrogen gas.
Dehydration of ethanol in presence of hot
sulphuric acid forms alkene.
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 Soaps and Detergents
Sodium or potassium salt of carboxylic acid is known as Soap. They work most
effectively in soap water. Detergents are sulphonate or ammonium salt of long chain
of carboxylic acid. They can work effectively on soft as well as hard water.
Cleansing Action of Soaps and Detergents
Cleansing action of soaps and detergents is due to ability to minimize the surface
tension of water, to emulsify oil or grease and to hold them in a suspension of
water. When soap dissolves in water, it forms soap anions and soap cations. The
hydrophobic part of soaps and detergents are soluble in grease and hydrophilic part
is soluble in water.
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 Soap and Micelle Formation
When dirt and grease are mixed with soap water, soap
molecules arrange them in tiny clusters known
as Micelle. The hydrophilic part sticks to the water and
form outer surface of the micelle and hydrophobic
part binds to oil and grease.
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 Life Processes

All the processes such as respiration,

nutrition, circulation, excretion etc. that
are necessary for the survival of the living
organisms are known as life processes.
 Modes of Nutrition
The two most common type of nutrition are autotrophic nutrition and
heterotrophic nutrition.
Autotrophic Nutrition
It is a type of nutrition in which inorganic materials such as carbon-dioxide, is
used up to synthesize organic food by a process known as photosynthesis. For
example, green plants use autotrophic mode of nutrition. Organisms which
uses autotrophic mode of nutrition are known as autotrophs.

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Now the question arises how autotrophic nutrition
occurs in plants using photosynthesis?
For the photosynthesis to occur, carbon-
dioxide, water, sunlight and chlorophyll
are the required raw . materials. Sunlight
provides energy, chlorophyll is used to
absorb the sunlight, carbon-dioxide is
reduced to carbohydrates and water is
oxidized to release the oxygen. Water is
taken up from the soil through the roots.
The site where the photosynthesis occurs in known as
chloroplast. They contain green colour pigment known
as chlorophyll that traps sunlight for photosynthesis.
Steps of the photosynthesis are as follows-
•Absorption of light by chlorophyll.
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•Conversion of light energy into chemical energy.
•Splitting of water into hydrogen and oxygen.
•Finally, reduction of carbon-dioxide into carbohydrates.
Leaves contain small openings known
as stomata which helps in exchange of gases.
Stomata/stoma is surrounded by guard cell which
guards the opening and closing of stomata. Guard cells
also contain chloroplast.
Leaves contain small openings known as stomata which helps in exchange
of gases. Stomata/stoma is surrounded by guard cell which guards the
opening and closing of stomata. Guard cells also contain chloroplast.

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The overall equation of photosynthesis is
 Heterotrophic Nutrition
In this mode of nutrition, an organism is unable
to synthesize its own food. It is of following types-
1. Holozoic nutrition is a type of nutrition where
an organism takes in whole food and break it
. Amoeba.
inside the body. For example,
2. Saprophytic nutrition is a nutrition in which
organisms feed on dead and decaying matter. For
example, fungi.
3. Parasitic nutrition is a nutrition in which
organism feed on living host. For example,
Cuscutta. 
 Nutrition in Human Beings
Humans consists of alimentary canal which starts from mouth and ends at anus. The
parts of the alimentary canal are as follows-
1. Mouth
2. Pharynx
3. Oesophagus/food pipe
4. Stomach
5. Small intestine
6. Large intestine
7. Rectum
8. Anus
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 Mouth is the first portion of the alimentary canal.
mouth consists of muscular tongue and teeth’s. cavity
inside the mouth is known as oral cavity.

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 Mechanism of Digestion of Food
•Food digestion process begins in the mouth. Food is
complex in nature.
•To breakdown food and absorb it, we need
biological catalyst known as enzymes.
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•Mouth contains salivary glands that secrete saliva.
Saliva contains an important enzyme known
as salivary enzymes that breaks down starch into
simple sugars.
•The food then passes via oesophagus into the
stomach. The movement of the food inside the
oesophagus occurs via rhythmic contraction of
muscles, this is known as peristalsis.
•Stomach contains gastric glands that secrete mucus,
hydrochloric acid and pepsin. Pepsin is a protein
digesting enzyme.
•After stomach, food then enters into small intestine. Small
intestine is larger in herbivores due to cellulose
digestion compared to carnivores.
•Complete digestion of carbohydrates, proteins and fats
occurs in small intestine. .
•Small intestine receives secretions from pancreas and
bile from the liver. Bile helps in emulsification of
fats whereas pancreas secrete enzymes such
as trypsin for protein digestion. Intestinal wall also
contains glands that secrete intestinal juice.
•Small intestine has villi that increases the surface area for
the absorption of food.
•The unabsorbed food is then transferred to large intestine
where water is absorbed.
 Respiration
•It is a metabolic process which involves breakdown of
food to release energy is known as respiration.

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•The breakdown of pyruvate into ethanol and
carbon-dioxide is absence of oxygen is known as
fermentation. As this process occurs in absence of
oxygen, it is known as anaerobic respiration. When
the pyruvate is broken down in carbon-dioxide
and water in presence of . oxygen it is known as
aerobic respiration.
•The energy released during the process is used up
to synthesize the ATP (adenosine triphosphate).
•Compared to animals, plants used stomata to
exchange carbon-dioxide and oxygen. This
exchange occurs through diffusion.
 Respiration in Human Beings
Human respiratory system starts consists of nostrils, nasal
cavity, pharynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles and then lungs.
In lungs, alveoli are present, where exchange between the
oxygen and carbon-dioxide takes place.

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Humans have a respiratory pigment known as
haemoglobin to carry the oxygen to different parts of
the body and to remove carbon-dioxide from the body.
Compared to oxygen, carbon-dioxide is more soluble in
water, so it is usually transported in dissolved form.
 Transportation in Human Beings
Blood is a fluid connective tissue that transport food, oxygen,
carbon-dioxide, nitrogenous waste etc. Blood contains plasma
and blood cells. Red blood cells carry oxygen throughout the
body. Heart is the pumping organ in the body.
•Human heart is 4 chambered, with two atrium and two
ventricles.
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•Left atrium receives the oxygen rich blood from the lungs.
While receiving blood it relaxes.
•Left ventricle pumps oxygen rich blood throughout the body.
•De-oxygenated blood comes from the body to the upper
right atrium. It contracts to pump the blood to right ventricle.
•Right ventricle pumps the blood to the lungs for oxygenation.
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Note: Fishes have two chambered heart, amphibians and reptiles have

three chambered heart except crocodile which possess 4 chambered heart.
Birds and mammals have 4 chambered heart.
 Double Circulation
The right side and left side of the heart are separated to prevent
the mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood. In
vertebrates, blood goes through the heart twice during each
cycle. This is defined as double circulation. 

Note: The force that the blood exerts

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against the wall of the vessel is known as
blood pressure. Pressure of blood inside the
artery during ventricular contraction is
known as systolic pressure whereas the
pressure in the artery during ventricular
relaxation is known as diastolic pressure.
The normal blood pressure is 120/80 mm of
Hg.
 Artery Capillary Vein

They carry blood away One cell thick smallest They carry blood towards
from the heart vessels the heart

They carry oxygenated Help in the exchange of the They carry deoxygenated
blood except the material between the blood except pulmonary
pulmonary artery. .
blood and surrounding vein.
cells.

They have thick walls and They do not have valves They have thin walls and
do not have valves. also possess valves.