Thermal Recovery Processes: Reference

Thermal Recovery Processes
Reference;
Enhanced Oil Recovery
Don W. Green
G. Paul Willhite
 Thermal recovery processes rely on the use of thermal energy in some form both to increase the
reservoir temperature, thereby reducing oil viscosity, and to displace oil to a producing well. Four
processes have evolved over the past 50 years to the point of commercial application. These are;
 cyclic steam stimulation (CSS),
 steam-assisted gravity drainage (SAGD),
 steam drive,
 and forward in-situ combustion.
 The motivation for developing thermal recovery processes was the existence of major reservoirs all
over the world that were known to contain billions of barrels of heavy oil and tar sands that could not
be produced with conventional techniques. In many reservoirs, the oil viscosity was so high that
primary recovery on the order of a few percent of original oil in place (OOIP) was common. In some
reservoirs, primary recovery was negligible.
 Thermal recovery processes are the most advanced enhanced-oil-recovery (EOR)

processes and contribute significant amounts of oil to daily production.
 Most thermal oil production is the result of;
 cyclic steam injection
 and steamdrive.
Thermal recovery processes are applicable to a wide range of reservoirs. Table 1 presents
screening criteria for EOR processes.
Table 2 summarizes the criteria for thermal recovery processes. These criteria are to be used
as a guide in selecting candidates for thermal recovery processes. Exceptions to the criteria
may be found in specific reservoirs.
Table 1: Summary of screening criteria for enhanced recovery methods
Table 2—Screening parameters for thermal recovery processes.
Screening parameters for thermal recovery processes
 Many of the criteria are identical for steam and in-situ combustion. Consequently, it is not
uncommon to find that a reservoir will satisfy the criteria for both processes.
Three criteria where there are significant differences are:
 depth,
 reservoir pressure,
 and average reservoir permeability.
 Steam processes are limited to depths on the order of 3,000 ft because wellbore heat losses
can become excessive. Insulated injection tubing can be used to reduce heat losses and
increase this depth.
 Although the depth limitation for in-situ combustion is suggested to be 11,500 ft, this is not a
process limitation if air can be injected at the reservoir pressure and the crude oil deposits
sufficient fuel to sustain the combustion front.
Reservoir pressure is the second criterion where the two processes differ. In steamdrive
projects, the fraction of energy transported as latent heat decreases as pressure increases.
The temperature of steam increases with pressure, as does the heat loss to the
surroundings. Consequently, under the same conditions, the volume of the reservoir that
can be contacted by steam decreases with injection pressure. Reservoir pressure becomes
a limiting factor in the application of steamdrive processes. The maximum injection
pressure is easy to establish. It is not practical to inject steam in the field near the critical
pressure of steam, which is 3,206.2 psi (critical temperature is 705.4°F). Although steam
has been injected at pressures of 2,500 psi in field projects, most successful steam-
injection projects operate at pressures on the order of 1,500 psi or lower. Reservoir
pressure is not limited by a similar mechanism in the in-situ-combustion process.
Reservoir pressure for in-situ-combustion projects is affected by compression costs and
injection rates. Projects are under consideration that have reservoir pressures significantly
higher than the 2,000 psi in the screening criteria.
Permeability of the reservoir is the third criterion where there are substantial
differences between steamdrive and in-situ combustion. In-situ combustion
can be applied in reservoirs that have lower permeability than the
permeability limit for steamdrive because the air-injection rates are sufficient
to sustain the combustion front. In contrast, the steam zone can advance only
as long as heat losses from the steam zone to the surrounding formations can
be maintained by the steam-injection rate. In low-permeability reservoirs, it
is not possible to inject steam at sufficient rates to propagate a steam zone
appreciable distances into the reservoir.
Thermal recovery processes rely on the fact that crude oil viscosity decreases
markedly with temperature, as illustrated for selected crude oils in Fig. 1. Thus,
reservoir heating is an essential part of all thermal recovery processes. We begin
our examination of thermal recovery methods by discussing wellbore heat
losses when hot fluid is injected from the surface to heat a reservoir.
Fundamental concepts of reservoir heating by hot-fluid injection are introduced.
Then, we focus on oil recovery processes, beginning with CSS, SAGD, and
steam displacement. We conclude with in-situ combustion, in which reservoir
heating is accomplished by injection of air or oxygen to react with the reservoir
oil. We note that in-situ combustion is an effective displacement process and is
not limited to reservoirs with viscous oils.
Thermal recovery processes rely on the fact that
crude oil viscosity decreases markedly with
temperature, as illustrated for selected crude oils
in Fig. 1.

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Thermal Recovery Processes

 Thermal recovery processes are the most advanced enhanced-oil-recovery (EOR)

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