Unit 6-1

Reporting Research Findings

(Technical Report Writing)
Lesson 1. Writing a scientific report – General points

A research report is a formal written document that presents

a research findings.
Aim
•The main purpose of a scientific report is to communicate
ideas.

 To convey essential information and ideas as concisely and

effectively as possible - A typical structure and style

 Precise formats vary by discipline and scientific journal,

but always treat them as flexible guidelines that enable
clear communication.
Lesson 1. Writing a scientific report – General points

Audience
• Assume that your intended reader has a background similar to
yours.

 That is, a general understanding of the topic but no

specific knowledge of the details.

• The reader should be able to reproduce whatever you did by

following your report.
 Lesson 1. Writing a scientific report – General points

Clarity of Writing
• When writing a research report, you must ponder over clarity,
organization, and content.
• To write is to think, so a paper that lays out ideas in a logical
order will facilitate the same kind of thinking.
 Make each sentence follows from the previous one,
building an argument piece by piece.
 Group related sentences into paragraphs, and group
paragraphs into sections.
 Create a flow from beginning to end.
Lesson 1. Writing a scientific report – General points

Supporting Material
• Use figures, tables, data, equations, etc. to help tell the story
as it unfolds.

• Refer to them directly in the text, and integrate the points

they make into your writing.

• Number figures and tables sequentially as they are introduced

(e.g., Figure 1, Figure 2, etc. with another sequence for Table
1, Table 2, etc.).

• Insert a figure or table after the paragraph in which it is first

mentioned, or, gather all supporting material together after
the reference section (before any appendices).
Lesson 1. Writing a scientific report – General points

Language and Style

• The report should be grammatically sound, with correct
spelling, and generally free of errors. Avoid jargon or
colloquial terms.

• Define acronyms and any abbreviations not used as standard

measurement units.

• Employ the active rather than passive voice to avoid boring

writing
Example:
"the software calculated average values" is better than
"average values were calculated by the software”.
Lesson 1. Writing a scientific report – General points

Grammar tips - practical and helpful

Use present tense:
• for generalizations and claims:
E.g. The sky is blue.
• to convey ideas, especially theories, which exist for the
reader at the time of reading:
E.g. x+y =5 ---- (1)
Substituting x=1 in eq.(1), we get,
• for authors' statements of a theoretical nature, which can
then be compared on equal terms with others:
E.g. Smith (1988) suggests that ...
• in referring to components of your own document:
E.g. Table 2 shows ...
Lesson 1. Writing a scientific report – General points

Grammar tips - practical and helpful

Use present perfect tense for:
• recent events or actions that are still linked in an unresolved
way to the present:
E.g. Several studies have attempted to ...
Use simple past tense for:
• completed events or actions:
E.g. Smith (1988) discovered that ...
Use past perfect tense for:
• events which occurred before a specified past time:
E.g. Prior to these findings, it had been thought that ...
Use modals (may, might, could, would, should) to:
• convey degrees of doubt
E.g. This may indicate that ... this would imply that ...
Lesson 1. Writing a scientific report – General points

Consistency of Format
• Within the report, the exact format of particular items is less
important than consistency of application.
For example, if you indent paragraphs, be sure to indent
them all;
• Use a consistent style of headings throughout (e.g., major
headings in bold with initial capitals, minor headings in
italics, etc.);

• Write "%" or "percent" but do not mix them, and so on. Consult
real journal papers for examples.
Lesson 1. Writing a scientific report – Components

• There are four major sections to a scientific report.

 Introduction – structured to say “here's the problem”
 Methods – structured to say “here's how I studied it”
 Results – structured to say “here's what I found”
 Discussion – structured to say “here's what it means”

• There are additional minor sections that precede or follow the major
sections:
• the title – appears on the title page/cover page
• Abstract - appears just before the Introduction
• Literature Review - appears after the Introduction (in a
thesis or dissertation),
• Acknowledgements
• References,
• appendices.
Lesson 1. Writing a scientific report – Components

• All sections are important, but at different stages to different

readers.
 When flipping through a journal, a reader might read the
title first, and if interested further then the abstract,
then conclusions, and then if he or she is truly fascinated
perhaps the entire paper.

• Therefore, you have to convince the reader that what you

have done is interesting and important by communicating
appeal and content in all sections.
Lesson 1. Writing a scientific report – Components

Title
• Convey the essential point of the paper.

• Be precise, concise, and use key words.

• Avoid padding with phrases like "A study of ..." or headlines

like "Global warming will fry Earth!"
 Lesson 1. Writing a scientific report – Components

Abstract
• Condense the whole paper into miniature form.
• A sentence or two summarizing each of the IMRAD sections
should suffice.
• No new information, no supporting material, limited details,
just the essential message that explains what you did and
found out.

• Write this section last of all.

• Usually not more than 200 to 250 words.

 Lesson 1. Writing a scientific report – Components

Introduction
• Introduce the problem, moving from the broader issues to
your specific problem, finishing the section with the precise
aims of the paper.

 Describes the specific problem being studied.

 Summarizes previous research (Refers relevant
ideas/theories and related research by other authors).
 Describes the significant of the research problem.
 Describes the basic research strategy.
• Craft this section carefully, setting up your argument in
logical order.
 Lesson 1. Writing a scientific report – Components

Literature Review - meaning

• Most research is conducted within the context of existing
findings and speculations by a community of researchers in
each discipline.

• Your study will draw from such a pool of professionally shared

knowledge and will undoubtedly contribute further to the
traditional understandings in your field.

• The review of literature familiarizes your reader with the

what, why and how of your topic.
 Lesson 1. Writing a scientific report – Components

Literature Review - meaning

• A literature review represents the reading you have done in
connection with your research study. 

• It is written and structured to:

 show the background against which your thinking
processes have emerged
 elucidate the theoretical frameworks you have adopted or
developed as a result of becoming familiar with existing
literature in the field
 Lesson 1. Writing a scientific report – Components

Literature Review – how to collect

• It is a good idea to read review articles as a preliminary step in your
search. This gives you an overview of the main areas of interest and
to generate your own well-informed opinions.
• Know what you want and how to find it.
• Keeping a record of your searches in an ongoing search log to save
time. Whatever you read:
• take a photocopy or note down the location of the original
• complete a book note for each item without delay
• record publication details immediately
• note main points in a summary form
• look for meanings and implications and write down your
thoughts straightaway
• write out direct quotes accurately, with quotation marks
and page numbers
 Lesson 1. Writing a scientific report – Components

Literature Review – how to write

• Presenting the literature is an important process of articulating
what you make of what you have read.
• There are three ways to combine an idea and its source with
your own voice:
• direct quote
• paraphrase
• summary
 Lesson 1. Writing a scientific report – Components

Direct quoting: repeats exact wording and thus directly represents the author:
E.g. 'Rain is likely when the sky becomes overcast' (Smith,1988)
Paraphrasing is repeating an idea in your own words, with no loss of the
author's intended meaning:
E.g. As Smith (1988) pointed out in the late eighties, rain may well be
indicated by the presence of cloud in the sky.
Summarizing means to shorten or crystallize a detailed piece of writing by
restating the main points in your own words and in the order in which you
found them.
E.g. Referring to the possible effects of cloudy weather, Smith (1988)
predicted the likelihood of rain.

Smith (1988) claims that some degree of precipitation could be

expected as the result of clouds in the sky: he has clearly discounted
the findings of Jones (1986).
 Lesson 1. Writing a scientific report – Components

Materials and Methods

• Explain how you studied the problem, which should follow
logically from the aims.
• Answer the question "what steps did I follow?" but do not
include results yet.
 Depending on the kind of data, this section may contain
subsections on experimental details, materials used, data
collection/sources, analytical or statistical techniques
employed, study area, etc.
 Provide enough detail for the reader to reproduce what
you did.
 Include flowcharts, maps or tables if they aid clarity or
brevity.
 Lesson 1. Writing a scientific report – Components

Results
• Answer the question "what did I find out?"
• Explain your actual findings, using subheadings to divide the
section into logical parts, with the text addressing the study
aims.
• Link your writing to figures and tables as you present the
results.
• For each, describe and interpret what you see (do not leave
this to the reader).
• If you have many similar figures, select representative
examples for brevity and put the rest in an appendix.
• Make comments on the results as they are presented, but save
broader generalizations and conclusions for later.
 Lesson 1. Writing a scientific report – Components

Discussion
• Discuss the importance of what you found, in light of the overall
study aims.
 Summarizes the results, present the implications of the data
 Includes alternative interpretations of the data.
 May suggest further research.

• Say what you actually found, not what you hoped to find. Begin with
specific comments and expand to more general issues.

• Recommend any improvements for further study. Answer the

question "what is the significance of the research?“

Important Note: this section is often combined with the Results section

Decide whether understanding and clarity are improved if you include

some discussion as you cover the results
 Lesson 1. Writing a scientific report – Components

Conclusions
• Restate the study aims or key questions and summarize your
findings using clear, concise statements.

• Keep this section brief and to the point.

“This study was conducted to …. It was found that

….Therefore, it is possible to conclude that …”
 Lesson 1. Writing a scientific report – Components

Acknowledgments
This is an optional section. Thank people who directly
contributed to the paper, by providing data, assisting with
some part of the analysis, proofreading, typing, etc.
It is not a place for dedication, so not advisable
 to thank Mom and Dad for bringing you into the
world, or your roommate for making your university life
pleasant.
 to thank GOD or ALLAH for helping accomplish the study.
 to curse those who made your endeavor very difficult
 Lesson 1. Writing a scientific report – Components

References
• List alphabetically only the people and publications that you
cited in the report (if none, omit the section).

• List all authors for the "et al." publications.

• Follow a standard format such as the examples below, and

note the distinctions regarding italics, capitalization,
volume/page numbers, publisher address, etc. between the
various kinds of references.
 Lesson 1. Writing a scientific report – Components

• Within the text, cite references by author and year unless

instructed otherwise. For example:
 For single author,
"Comrie (1999) stated that ..." or "several studies have found
that x is greater than y (Comrie, 1999; Smith, 1999)”.
 For two authors, list both names,
" Comrie and Smith(1999) stated that ..." or "several studies
have found that x is greater than y (Comrie and Smith,
1999) ".
 For three or more use the abbreviation "et al." following the
first name,
"Comrie et al. (1999)."
• Attribute every idea that is not your own to avoid plagiarism.
 Lesson 1. Writing a scientific report – Components

Personal (unpublished) communications

• Cited in the text only, e.g., "... x is greater than y (Comrie 1999, pers.
comm.)."
Lecture Notes
• Comrie, A.C., 1999. The climate of Tucson. April 1 lecture, GEOG 230 Our
Changing Climate, University of Arizona.
Web Site
• Comrie, A.C., 1999. The climate of Tucson. Internet:
<http://geog.arizona.edu/~comrie/tucson.html>.
Single Author Journal Paper
• Comrie, A.C., 1999. The climate of Tucson. Climate Journal 5, 123-132.
Multiple Author Journal Paper
• Comrie, A.C., B.C. Smith and C.D. Jones, 1999. The climate of Tucson.
Climate Journal 5, 123-132.
 Lesson 1. Writing a scientific report – Components

Book
• Comrie, A.C., 1999. The Climate of Tucson. Academic Publishers,
Boston.

Government/Technical Report
• Comrie, A.C., 1999. The climate of Tucson. Report ABC-001, Institute
for Climate Studies, University of Arizona.

Chapter in an Edited Volume

Comrie, A.C., 1999. The climate of Tucson. In Smith, B.C. and Jones,
C.D., eds., The Climate of the Southwest. Academic Publishers,
Boston.
 Lesson 1. Writing a scientific report – Components

Appendix
• If necessary, one or more appendices containing raw data,
figures not used in the body of the paper, sample
calculations, etc. may be included.

• They are considered as additional material to the report, and

may not be examined by the reader at all.
Thank you