Reporting Research Findings

(Technical Report Writing)

 Lesson 1. Writing a scientific report – General points

A research report is a formal written document that presents a

research findings.
Aim
• The main purpose of a scientific report is to communicate ideas –
i.e. To convey essential information and ideas as concisely and
effectively as possible - A typical structure and style
 Precise formats vary by discipline and scientific journal, but
they should always be guidelines that enable clear
communication.
 Lesson 1. Writing a scientific report – General points

Audience
• Assume that your intended reader has a background similar
to yours.
 That is, a general understanding of the topic but no
specific knowledge of the details.
 The reader should be able to reproduce whatever you did
by following your report.
E.g. GIS-based approach for optimized siting of municipal solid
waste landfill
Lesson 1. Writing a scientific report – General points

Clarity of Writing
• When writing a research report, you must ponder over
clarity, organization, and content.
• To write is to think, so a paper that lays out ideas in a
logical order will facilitate the same kind of thinking.
 Make each sentence follows from the previous one,
building an argument piece by piece.
 Group related sentences into paragraphs, and group
related paragraphs into sections.
 Create a flow from beginning to end.
 Lesson 1. Writing a scientific report – General points
Supporting Material
• Use figures, tables, data, equations, etc. to help tell the story as
it unfolds.
• Refer to them directly in the text, and integrate the points they
make into your writing.
• Number figures and tables sequentially as they are introduced
(e.g., Figure 1, Figure 2, etc. with another sequence for Table 1,
Table 2, etc.).
• Insert a figure or table after the paragraph in which it is first
mentioned,
• And, gather all less important supporting materials put them
together in Appendices
Lesson 1. Writing a scientific report – General points

Language and Style

• The report should be grammatically sound, with correct
spelling, and generally free of errors. Avoid jargon or
colloquial terms.
• Define acronyms and any abbreviations not used as standard
measurement units.
• Employ the active rather than passive voice to avoid boring
writing
Example:
"the software calculated average values" is better than
"average values were calculated by the software”.
 Lesson 1. Writing a scientific report – General points
Grammar tips - practical and helpful
Use present tense:
• for generalizations and claims:

E.g. The sky is blue.

• to convey ideas, especially theories, which exist for the reader at the
time of reading:
E.g. x+y =5 ---- (1) Substituting x=1 in eq.(1), we get,
• for authors' statements of a theoretical nature, which can then be
compared on equal terms with others:
E.g. Smith (1988) suggests that ...
• in referring to components of your own document:

E.g. Table 2 shows ...

 Lesson 1. Writing a scientific report – General points
Use present perfect tense for:
• recent events or actions that are still linked in an unresolved way
to the present: E.g. Several studies have attempted to ...
Use simple past tense for:
• completed events or actions: E.g. Smith (1988) discovered that ...

Use past perfect tense for:

• events which occurred before a specified past time:

E.g. Prior to these findings, it had been thought that ...

Use modals (may, might, could, would, should) to:
• convey degrees of doubt

E.g. This may indicate that ... this would imply that ...
 Lesson 1. Writing a scientific report – General points

Consistency of Format
• Within the report, the exact format of particular items is less
important than consistency of application.
o For example, if you indent paragraphs, be sure to indent
them all;
• Use a consistent style of headings throughout (e.g., major
headings in bold with initial capitals, minor headings in
italics, etc.);
• Write "%" or "percent" but do not mix them, and so on.
Consult real journal papers for examples.
 Lesson 1. Writing a scientific report – Components
• There are four major sections to a scientific report.
 Introduction – structured to say “here's the problem”
 Methods – structured to say “here's how I studied it”
 Results – structured to say “here's what I found”
 Discussion – structured to say “here's what it means”
• There are additional minor sections that precede or follow the
major sections:
• the title – appears on the title page/cover page
• Abstract - appears just before the Introduction
• Literature Review - appears after the Introduction (in a
thesis or dissertation),
• Acknowledgements
• References,
• appendices.
 Lesson 1. Writing a scientific report – Components
• Thesis Writing Format:
 The title page
 Acknowledgement
 Table of contents
 List of Tables
 List of Figures
 Acronyms and Abbreviations
 Abstract
 Introduction
 Objectives
 Literature Review
 Materials and Methods
 Results and Discussion
 Summary, Conclusion and Recommendation
 References,
• Appendices.
Lesson 1. Writing a scientific report – Components

• All sections are important, but at different stages to different

readers.
 When flipping through a journal, a reader might read the
title first, and if interested further then the abstract, then
conclusions, and then if he or she is truly fascinated
perhaps the entire paper.
• Therefore, you have to convince the reader that what you have
done is interesting and important by communicating appeal
and content in all sections.
Lesson 1. Writing a scientific report – Components

Title

• Convey the essential point of the paper.

• Be precise, concise, and use key words.

• Avoid padding with phrases like "A study of ..." or

headlines like "Global warming will fry Earth!"

Lesson 1. Writing a scientific report – Components

Abstract
• Condense the whole paper into miniature form.
• A sentence or two summarizing each of the IMRAD sections
should suffice.
• No new information, no supporting material, limited details,
just the essential message that explains what you did and
found out.
• Write this section last of all.
• Usually not more than 200 to 250 words.
 Lesson 1. Writing a scientific report – Components

Introduction
• Introduce the problem, moving from the broader issues to your
specific problem, finishing the section with the precise aims of
the paper.
 Describes the specific problem being studied.
 Summarizes previous research (Refers relevant
ideas/theories and related research by other authors).
 Describes the significant of the research problem.
 Describes the basic research strategy.
• Craft this section carefully, setting up your argument in logical
order.
 Lesson 1. Writing a scientific report – Components

Literature Review - meaning

• Most research is conducted within the context of existing findings and
speculations by a community of researchers in each discipline.
• Your study will draw from such a pool of professionally shared
knowledge and will undoubtedly contribute further to the traditional
understandings in your field.
• The review of literature familiarizes your reader with the what, why and
how of your topic.
 Lesson 1. Writing a scientific report – Components

Literature Review - meaning

• A literature review represents the reading you have done in
connection with your research study.
• It is written and structured to:

 show the background against which your thinking processes have

emerged
 elucidate the theoretical frameworks you have adopted or
developed as a result of becoming familiar with existing literature
in the field
 Lesson 1. Writing a scientific report – Components
Literature Review – how to collect
• It is a good idea to read review articles as a preliminary step in your
search. This gives you an overview of the main areas of interest and to
generate your own well-informed opinions.
• Know what you want and how to find it.
• Keeping a record of your searches in an ongoing search log to save time.
Whatever you read:
• take a photocopy or note down the location of the original
• complete a book note for each item without delay
• record publication details immediately
• note main points in a summary form
 Lesson 1. Writing a scientific report – Components
• look for meanings and implications and write down your thoughts
straightaway
• write out direct quotes accurately, with quotation marks and
page numbers
Literature Review – how to write
• Presenting the literature is an important process of articulating what you
make of what you have read.
• There are three ways to combine an idea and its source with your own
voice:
• direct quote
• paraphrase
• summary
 Lesson 1. Writing a scientific report – Components
Direct quoting: repeats exact wording and thus directly represents the
author:
E.g. 'Rain is likely when the sky becomes overcast' (Smith,1988)
Paraphrasing is repeating an idea in your own words, with no loss of the
author's intended meaning:
E.g. As Smith (1988) pointed out, rain may well be indicated by the
presence of cloud in the sky.
Summarizing means to shorten or crystallize a detailed piece of writing by
restating the main points in your own words and in the order in which
you found them.
E.g. Referring to the possible effects of cloudy weather, Smith (1988)
predicted the likelihood of rain.

Smith (1988) claims that some degree of precipitation could be

expected as the result of clouds in the sky: he has clearly discounted
the findings of Jones (1986).
Lesson 1. Writing a scientific report – Components
Materials and Methods
• Explain how you studied the problem, which should follow logically
from the aims.
• Answer the question "what steps did I follow?" but do not include
results yet.
 Depending on the kind of data, this section may contain
subsections on experimental details, materials used, data
collection/sources, analytical or statistical techniques employed,
study area, etc.
 Provide enough detail for the reader to reproduce what you did.
 Include flowcharts, maps or tables if they aid clarity or brevity.
 Lesson 1. Writing a scientific report – Components
Results
• Answer the question "what did I find out?"
• Explain your actual findings, using subheadings to divide the section
into logical parts, with the text addressing the study aims.
• Link your writing to figures and tables as you present the results.
• For each, describe and interpret what you see (do not leave this to the
reader).
• If you have many similar figures, select representative examples for
brevity and put the rest in an appendix.
• Make comments on the results as they are presented, but save broader
generalizations and conclusions for later.
 Lesson 1. Writing a scientific report – Components
Discussion
• Discuss the importance of what you found, in light of the overall
study aims.
 Summarizes the results, presents the implications of the
data
 Includes alternative interpretations of the data.
 May suggest further research.

• Say what you actually found, not what you hoped to find. Begin
with specific comments and expand to more general issues.

• Recommend any improvements for further study. Answer the

question "what is the significance of the research?“
Important Note: this section is often combined with the Results section
Decide whether understanding and clarity are improved if you include some
discussion as you cover the results
 Lesson 1. Writing a scientific report – Components

Conclusions
• Restate the study aims or key questions and summarize your
findings using clear, concise statements.
• Keep this section brief and to the point.

“This study was conducted to …. It was found that

….Therefore, it is possible to conclude that …”
 Lesson 1. Writing a scientific report – Components

Acknowledgments
This is an optional section. Thank people who directly contributed
to the paper, by providing data, assisting with some part of the
analysis, proofreading, typing, etc.

It is not a place for dedication, so not advisable

 to thank Mom and Dad for bringing you into the world,
or your roommate for making your university life pleasant.

 to thank GOD or ALLAH for helping accomplish the

study.

 to curse those who made your endeavor very difficult

 Lesson 1. Writing a scientific report – Components

References
• List alphabetically only the people and publications that you
cited in the report (if none, omit the section).
• List all authors for the "et al." publications.
• Follow a standard format such as the examples below, and note
the distinctions regarding italics, capitalization, volume/page
numbers, publisher address, etc. between the various kinds of
references.
 Lesson 1. Writing a scientific report – Components
SOURCE CITATION
• Within the text, cite references by author and year unless
instructed otherwise. For example:
 For single author,
"Comrie (1999) stated that ..." or "several studies
have found that x is greater than y (Comrie, 1999;
Smith, 1999)”.
 For two authors, list both names,
" Comrie and Smith(1999) stated that ..." or "several
studies have found that x is greater than y (Comrie and
Smith, 1999) ".
 For three or more use the abbreviation "et al." following
the first name,
"Comrie et al. (1999)."
• Attribute every idea that is not your own to avoid plagiarism.
 Lesson 1. Writing a scientific report – Components
SOURCE CITATION
• Citing Chapter or Section
the author of the chapter not the editor of the whole work.
The sea level has risen by approximately 10cm in the last 100 years (Mason,
1999)

Citing an Organization
Make sure that you use the same version of the organizations name in both the
Text and List of references. E.g. Spain became a member of the United Nations
in 1955 (United Nations, 2000).
Citing Secondary Sources
When citing secondary sources (i.e., an author refers to a work which you have
not read) cite the secondary source, but include the name of the author and date
of publication of the original source in the text.

Sheff (1993) notes that Nintendo invested heavily in advertising (cited in Kline
et al., 2003, p. 118).
Lesson 1. Writing a scientific report – Components
REFERENCE WRITING
Personal (unpublished) communications
• Cited in the text only, e.g., "... x is greater than y (Comrie 1999,
pers. comm.)."
Lecture Notes
• Comrie, A.C., 1999. The climate of Tucson. April 1 lecture, GEOG 230
Our Changing Climate, University of Arizona.
Web Site
• Comrie, A.C., 1999. The climate of Tucson. Internet:
<http://geog.arizona.edu/~comrie/tucson.html>.
Single Author Journal Paper
• Comrie, A.C., 1999. The climate of Tucson. Climate Journal 5, 123-
132.
Multiple Author Journal Paper
• Comrie, A.C., B.C. Smith and C.D. Jones, 1999. The climate of
Tucson. Climate Journal 5, 123-132.
 Lesson 1. Writing a scientific report – Components

Book
• Comrie, A.C., 1999. The Climate of Tucson. Academic Publishers,
Boston.

Government/Technical Report
• Comrie, A.C., 1999. The climate of Tucson. Report ABC-001,
Institute for Climate Studies, University of Arizona.

Chapter in an Edited Volume

Comrie, A.C., 1999. The climate of Tucson. In Smith, B.C. and
Jones, C.D., eds., The Climate of the Southwest. Academic
Publishers, Boston.
Lesson 1. Writing a scientific report – Components

Appendix
• If necessary, one or more appendices containing raw data,
figures not used in the body of the paper, sample calculations,
etc. may be included.

• They are considered as additional material to the report, and

may not be examined by the reader at all.
 Reference managers software
1. Jab Ref
2. Use EndNote 20
3. Mendeley