BACTERIA

MICROORGANISMS
 Microscopic organisms, commonly known as microorganisms or microbes,
are found all around us and even inside our bodies.
 The category ‘Microbes’ includes a massive range of organisms including
bacteria, fungi, viruses, algae
 The vast majority of microbes on the earth pose no real threat to
humans, plants or animals; in fact they actually work alongside humans to
make world go round, aiding decomposition, decay and even helping us to
digest our food.
 However, there are some microorganisms which negatively impact our
lives, causing illness, bad odours and damaging products and surfaces.
 Some of the names we regularly hear in the media are Salmonella, E.coli,
Malaria and Bird flu.
 Based on the relative complexity of their cells, all living organisms are
broadly classified as either prokaryotes or eukaryotes. 
 A prokaryotic cell is a simple, single-celled (unicellular) organism that lacks a
nucleus, or any other membrane-bound organelle.
 Prokaryotic DNA is found in the central part of the cell: a darkened region
called the nucleoid.
 Bacteria’s are prokaryotes.
 Some other parts of prokaryotic cells are similar to those in
eukaryotic cells, such as a cell wall surrounding the cell
(which is also found in plant cells, although it has a different
composition).
 Like eukaryotic cells, prokaryotic cells have cytoplasm, a gel-like substance
that makes up the “filling” of the cell, and a cytoskeleton that holds
components of the cell in place.
 Both prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells have ribosomes, which are
organelles that produce proteins, and vacuoles, small spaces in cells that
store nutrients and help eliminate waste.
 Some prokaryotic cells have flagella, which are tail-like structures that
enable the organism to move around.
 They may also have pili, small hair-like structures that help bacteria adhere
to surfaces and can allow DNA to be transferred between two prokaryotic
cells in a process known as conjugation.
 Another part that is found in some bacteria is the capsule. The
capsule is a sticky layer of carbohydrates that helps the bacterium
adhere to surfaces in its surroundings.
 A eukaryotic cell is a cell that has a membrane-bound nucleus and other
membrane-bound compartments or sacs, called organelles, which have
specialized functions.
 Eukaryotic cells are cells that contain a nucleus and organelles, and are
enclosed by a plasma membrane.
 Eukaryotic cells developed specific organelles, which are structures within
the cell that perform a specific task.
 These organelles include mitochondria, which make energy, chloroplasts,
which are found in plants and make food from light and carbon dioxide, and
the endoplasmic reticulum, which sorts and packages proteins.
 Lysosomes contain a wide variety of hydrolytic enzymes
(acid hydrolases) that break down macromolecules such as
nucleic acids, proteins, and polysaccharides.
BACTERIA
 Bacteria are microscopic single-celled organisms that thrive in diverse environments. They
can live within soil, in the ocean and inside the human gut.
 Bacteriaare a member of the prokaryotes; they have no nucleus within the cell and
contain no organelles (specialised cellular ‘organs’).
 Within bacteria there are two classes, Gram positive bacteria which have thicker cell wall
and Gram negatives which have a thinner layer sandwiched between an inner and outer
membrane.
 Bacteria are extremely diverse and in terms of number are by far the most successful
organism on Earth. Bacteria are the only microorganisms which can live harmlessly within
the human body, often aiding bodily functions such as digestion. In fact there are more
bacterial cells within the human body than humans cells, albeit much smaller in size.
 Bacteria, of all the ‘living’ microorganisms, cause the most problems in terms of disease
in humans, despite only relatively few bacteria being dangerous.
 Bacteria of medical importance generally measure 0.2 – 1.5 μm in diameter and about 3-5
μm in length.
 SHAPES
 The different bacterial shapes:

a. bacillus (rod),
b. coccus (spherical),
c. spirillum (spiral),
d. spirochaete (corkscrew),  
e. vibrios (comma),
 f. chain of cocci,
g. cluster of cocci,
h. pair of cocci,
i. chain of bacilli 
 Bacteria come in a myriad of shapes. The three main shapes of bacteria
are coccus, spiral, and bacillus.

 Cocci are bacteria that are spherical or ovoid in shape. Some cocci
remain attached after binary fission, even though separate cells have
been formed. For example, diplococci are cocci in pairs, streptococci
are chains, and staphylococci are clusters of multiple cocci. Tetrads
are square arrangements of four cocci, while sarcinae are cubes of
eight cocci.
 Spiral bacteria are spiral-shaped. Spirillums are thick, tough spirals.
Spirochetes are spirals that are thin and flexible. Vibrios are comma-
shaped rods with a small twist.
 Bacilli are rod-shaped bacteria. Like cocci, bacilli can be solitary or
arranged together. Diplobacilli are two bacilli arranged next to each
other, and streptobacilli are chains of bacilli.
 Bacteria can also be other shapes such as filamentous (long and thin),
square, star-shaped, and stalked.
 Gram positive and gram negative bacteria
 The cell wall also makes Gram staining possible.
 Gram staining is a method of staining bacteria involving crystal violet dye, iodine, and the
counterstain safranin.
 Many bacteria can be classified into one of two types:
 gram-positive, which show the stain and appear violet in color under a microscope,
 gram-negative, which only show the counterstain, and appear red.
 Gram-positive bacteria appear violet because they have thick cell walls that trap the crystal
violet-iodine complex.
 The thin cell walls of gram-negative bacteria cannot hold the violet-iodine complex, but they
can hold safranin. This makes gram-negative bacteria appear red under Gram staining.
 Examples of gram-positive bacteria include the genera Listeria, Streptococcus, and Bacillus,
while gram-negative bacteria include Proteobacteria, green sulfur bacteria, and
cyanobacteria.
REPRODUCTION
Binary Fission

 Most bacteria rely on binary fission for propagation.

 It is the most common mode of asexual reproduction.
 The cytoplasm and nucleoid of a bacterial cell divide equally into two, following
replication of DNA. The cell wall and cytoplasm also split resulting in the formation of
two daughter cells.
 Under favourable conditions, a bacterial cell divides by fission once in every 20 minutes.
 a cell just needs to grow to twice its starting size and then split in two. 
 But, to remain viable and competitive, a bacterium must divide at the right time, in the
right place, and must provide each offspring with a complete copy of its essential genetic
material. 
 Before binary fission occurs, the cell must copy its genetic material (DNA) and segregate
these copies to opposite ends of the cell. 
 Eg- Escherichia coli
 Budding :
 It is a comparatively rare process of reproduction of bacteria observed in few like
Rhodopseudomonas.It is a process by which the vegetative cell forms a lateral
protuburance in the form of an outer bulge containing a fragment of genetic material or
nucleoid in it. The bud may either get separated from the parent cell or may form a
colony along with the parent cell.
Sexual Reproduction/ genetic recombination

 In bacterial sexual, it involves transfer of a portion of genetic material (DNA) from a donor cell
to a recipient cell. This process is called as genetic recombination. It is known to occur in the
following three ways:
 Transformation
 In this process, one kind of bacterium is transformed into another kind. It takes place by a
transfer of DNA from a capsulated bacterium into a non-capsulated bacterium. It has been
observed in Diplococcus bacteria.
 Transduction
 In this process, DNA of a bacterial cell (donor) is transferred into another bacterial cell with
the help of a bacteriophage. This process is known to occur in several bacterial species such as
Salmonella, Micrococcus and Stigella.
 Conjugation
 Conjugation is the process by which one bacterium transfers genetic material to another
through direct contact. During conjugation, one bacterium serves as the donor of the genetic
material, and the other serves as the recipient. The donor bacterium carries a DNA sequence
called the fertility factor, or F-factor. The F-factor allows the donor to produce a thin,
tubelike structure called a pilus, which the donor uses to contact the recipient. The pilus then
draws the two bacteria together, at which time the donor bacterium transfers genetic
material to the recipient bacterium. Eg- mycobacterium, agrobacterium
MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACRTERISTICS
IMPORTANT IN FOOD BACTERIOLOGY
Endospore Formation
In certain bacteria like Clostridium and Bacillus, the cells tide over unfavourable conditions by forming endospores. During this process, a portion of the cytoplasm and a copy of the bacterial chromosome undergo dehydration and get surrounded by a three-layered covering. The remaining part of cytoplasm and cell wall
degenerate. The resulting structure,
called endospore can tolerate extreme
environmental conditions and can remain viable
for several years. When the environmental
conditions are suitable, the endospore absorbs
water, swells and the wall splits, releasing the
cell inside. It develops a new cell wall and starts
functioning as a typical bacterial cell.
Endospore formation is not a method of
reproduction. It is only a method meant for
tiding over unfavourable conditions and
allowing dispersal of the bacterial cells into new
habitats. As the spores are formed within the cell, they are called endospores. Only one spore is formed in a bacterial cell.
ENCAPSULATION
 Some bacterial cells are surrounded by a viscous substance forming a covering
layer or envelope around the cell wall. That is known as capsule.
 The bacterial capsule is a very large structure of many bacteria. It is a
polysaccharide layer that lies outside the cell envelope, and is thus deemed part
of the outer envelope of a bacterial cell. It is a well-organized layer, not easily
washed off, and it can be the cause of various diseases.
 The capsule—which can be found in both gram negative and gram-positive bacteria
 it enhances the ability of bacteria to cause disease
 IT MAY ACCOUNT FOR SLIMINESS OR ROPINESS OF A FOOD.
 Provides increased resistance to bacteria to adverse conditions.
 May serve as a source of nutrients.
Flagella
 When prokaryotes decide to strike out for greener pastures, they make and
use special structures called flagella. Flagella function like little flippers, but
they look like whips. Here is a microscope image of stained, flagellum-riddled
bacteria: