Working Conditions and

Working Environment
Factors Affecting Working Conditions

The set of elements constituting the working conditions are:

1. Occupational Safety and Health Elements

2. Fire Prevention and Protection Elements
3. Layout and Housekeeping Elements
4. Lighting and Ventilation Elements
5. Noise and Vibration Elements
6. Ergonomics Elements and
7. Arrangement of Working Time
A cluttered shop-floor impedes (delay or prevent ) the easy flow of material and
workers, causing production delays, errors and accidents.
The same shop-floor after unnecessary items have been removed. Once floor space
is retrieved, new workplaces could be added and the flow of work-in-progress is
speeded up.
Occupational Safety and Health Organization

The most effective method of obtaining good results in the prevention of

occupational hazards includes the following:

 To recognize the importance of the employer's responsibilities for ensuring that

the workplace is safe and without risk to workers' health.

 To adopt an occupational safety and health policy that provides for the
establishment of a good occupational safety and health organization within the
enterprise.

 To encourage strong participation of workers in safety and health activities at

the workplace; including safety committees, inspection and accident
investigation, and the appointment of specialists.
Occupational Safety and Health Organization

The four basic methods of controlling occupational hazards classified by

decreasing order of effectiveness
The Fire Prevention of Industrial Accidents

The first principle of fire prevention is to design buildings, processes and storage
facilities in such a way as to limit the possible combination of oxygen, fuel and an
increase in temperature.

The second principle is to eliminate or reduce sources of heat or ignition, thus

limiting the rise in temperature.
The Fire Prevention of Industrial Accidents

Preparedness for fire emergencies should always be organized by management along

the following lines:

 Every workplace should have an emergency plan with information detailing the
role of every worker in case of a fire or other emergency.

 There should be at least two clear, properly marked, unobstructed exits leading to
areas of safety.

 There must be a way of notifying personnel of a need to evacuate, such as an

alarm system. This should produce a sufficiently loud signal for all workers to hear
the alarm.

 The right type of fire extinguisher should always be provided in adequate

numbers for the given risk, and placed accordingly. Every worker should have
hands-on training concerning the proper use of the extinguisher, including both
when and when not to use it.

 The provision of automatic fire protection such as sprinklers has proved to be very
effective in protecting escape routes for workers.
Major hazard control

The potential for major industrial accidents has become more significant as the
production, storage and use of hazardous substances has increased.

Major fires, explosions or the dispersion of toxic chemicals can cause deaths
and injuries to workers and the public.

The basic components of major hazard control systems are:

1. Identifying major hazard installations

2. Information about the plant
3. Action inside the plant
4. Emergency planning
 Working premises

1. In developing a layout, emphasis should be placed on the principle of isolating any

operation which is hazardous or constitutes a nuisance.

2. Wherever possible, work premises should be above ground level and equipped
with windows having a surface area of not less than 17 per cent of the floor area.

3. Minimum ceiling height should not be less than 3 metres and each worker should
have at least 10 cubic metres of air (or more where temperatures or the level of
atmospheric pollution are high).

4. For the purposes of accident prevention, it is important to ensure that each

worker has an adequate minimum free-floor area which should not be less than 2
square metres per person.

5. Walls and ceilings should have a finish which prevents the accumulation of dirt,
avoids moisture absorption, reduces noise transmission; floor coverings should
be of the non-slip and easy-to-clean type and should have good electrical and
thermal insulation properties.
 Good Housekeeping

Good housekeeping involves certain basic elements:

1. Unnecessary items should be disposed of and other rarely used items collected
and stored in a suitable manner.

2. Tools and equipment should be arranged in a way that allows easy access and
return to their designated place.

3. Gangways and passages should be kept clear and the floor painted with lines at
least 5 cm wide that distinguish them as such. Depots and storage areas should be
similarly marked. Toxic matter should be painted in a different colour to identify it
as such.

4. The work area should be kept clean. Continuous cleaning of floors, workbenches,
machinery and equipment can prolong their working life and hence less repairs or
maintenance is required.
 Good Housekeeping

Good housekeeping involves certain basic elements:

5. Working clothes should also be kept clean in order to reduce the skin-absorption
hazard of certain toxic substances (aniline and its derivatives, benzene, organo-
phosphorus compounds, tetraethyl lead) and the problem of skin sensitization and
chronic or acute irritation.

6. Workers exposed to toxic substances should have twin-compartment clothing

lockers to keep their working clothes separate from their other clothes. It is
advisable to provide a centralized laundry service for working clothes in plants
using highly toxic substances.

7. Workers employed on dirty jobs or exposed to dangerous or toxic substances

should have wash-rooms with a tap for every three or four workers and a shower
for every three workers to ensure that workers do not give up taking a shower
because they have to wait too long.

8. Adequate toilet facilities should be provided no farther than 75 metres from work
areas.
Good Housekeeping

Arrangement and storage of tools:

Lighting

 It is estimated that 80 per cent of the information required in doing a job is

perceived visually.

 Good visibility of the equipment and the product is an essential factor in

accelerating production, reducing the number of defective products, cutting
down waste and preventing visual fatigue and headaches among the workers.

 It may also be added that both inadequate visibility and glare are frequently
causes of accidents.

 Visibility depends on a number of factors:

 Size and colour of the work piece, its distance from the eyes, the lighting
intensity, and contrasts of colour and lighting levels with the background.
 Lighting

Recommended minimum values of illumination for various classes of visual task:

Lighting

Recommended maximum lighting intensity ratios:

The use of natural light should be encouraged. This can be achieved by installing
windows that open, which are recommended to have an area equal to at least
one-sixth of the floor area.
Lighting

General lighting units should preferably be mounted as high as possible.

Lighting

Some general lighting is always needed even when tasks are locally lit.
1. Uniform general lighting .
2. Local supplementary lighting.
Lighting

Measurements are to the centre point of the unit in all cases, and are expressed as
a multiple of the mounting height h above the work plane. The 3/4 h figure applies
when there is a gangway next to the wall, whilst the 1/2 h figure is used when
people work close to the wall. For louvred units, maximum spacing between
fittings should be reduced to 1 1/4 h.
Lighting

Factors influencing the degree of glare produced by a given diffusing fitting (or a
bare fluorescent lamp unit)
Lighting

Factors influencing the degree of glare produced by a given diffusing fitting (or a
bare fluorescent lamp unit).
Lighting

Control of lighting

In order to make the best use of lighting in the workplace, the following points should
be taken into account:

1. For uniform light distribution, install an independent switch for the row of lighting
fixtures closest to the windows. This allows the lights to be switched on and off
depending on whether or not natural light is sufficient.

2. To prevent glare, avoid using highly shiny, glossy work surfaces.

3. Use localized lighting in order to achieve the desired level for a particular fine job.

4. Clean light fixtures regularly and follow a maintenance schedule so as to prevent

flickering of old bulbs and electrical hazards due to worn out cables.

5. Avoid direct eye contact with the light sources. This is usually achieved by
positioning them properly. The use of diffusers is also quite effective.
 Noise and Vibration

 Noise means any disagreeable or undesired sound.

 The practical unit for measuring noise is decibel (dB).

 The unit of frequency is hertz (Hz) and the ear responds over the approximate
range of 20 to 20,000 Hz. The loudness of sounds, as judged by the human ear,
depends on frequency as well as level.

 The ear is less sensitive to low and very high frequencies than to the middle range
of frequencies from 1,000 to 8,000 Hz.

 Noise may cause sensori-motor, neuro-vegetative and metabolic disorders.

 It has been named as a cause of industrial fatigue, irritation, reduced productivity

and occupational accidents.
Noise and Vibration

Distance at which the normal voice can be heard against background noise
Noise and Vibration

1. The most effective method of noise control is to reduce the noise at source
by, for example, replacing noisy machines or equipment by less noisy
ones(as is always the case with preventive action).

2. The second method is to prevent or reduce noise transmission by the

installation of noise-absorbent barriers between the noise source and the
worker or by isolating the noise source in separate premises or a
soundproofed enclosure.

3. Personal noise protection consists of ear-plugs made from material such as

glass fibre or foam plastic, or earmuffs which provide a reduction in noise of
up to 20 dB.

4. Workers who are systematically exposed to noise levels above the danger
level should receive a periodic audiometric examination. This examination
can help to identify at an early stage individuals whose hearing has been
affected.
Noise and Vibration

Duration of continuous noise exposure which should not be exceeded to ensure the
prevention of occupational deafness among the majority of workers.
 Vibration

1. Although only a limited number of workers are exposed to vibrations which

constitute a health hazard, the necessary protective measures should not be
neglected.

2. The possibility of reducing vibration levels (e.g. dynamic balancing of rotating

parts, use of vibration-absorbing mountings, providing heavy foundations) and
reducing the effect of vibrations (e.g. use of vibration damping handles for hand-
held machines) should be explored first. Where this is not possible the period of
exposure should be controlled.

3. Persons exposed to vibrations should be subjected to periodic medical

examinations.
Climatic Conditions

Working in a hot environment

Working in a cold environment
Working in a wet environment

Control of working climate

 Climatic Conditions

In controlling the thermal environment, one or more of the following principles

may be applied:

1. Regulating the workroom temperature by preventing outside heat or cold

from entering (improved design of the roof, insulation material or installing an
air-conditioned workroom).

2. Provision of ventilation in hot work places by increasing natural ventilation

through openings or installing ventilation devices.

3. Separation of heat sources from the working area, insulation of hot surfaces
and pipes, or placement of barriers between the heat sources and the
workers.

4. Control of humidity with a view to keeping it at low levels, for example by

preventing the escape of steam from pipes and equipment.
 Climatic Conditions

In controlling the thermal environment, one or more of the following principles

may be applied:

5. Provision of adequate personal protective clothing and equipment for

workers exposed to excessive radiant heat or excessive cold (heat protective
clothing with high insulation value may not be recommended for jobs with
long exposure to moderate or heavy work).

6. Reduction of exposure time, for example by mechanization, remote control or

alternating work schedules.

7. Insertion of rest pauses between work periods, with comfortable, if possible

air-conditioned, resting facilities.

8. Ensuring a supply of cold drinking-water for workers in a hot environment and

of hot drinks for those exposed to a cold environment.
Ventilation

Workplace ventilation:

1. Disperses the heat generated by machines and people at work; consequently,

where machines or workers are grouped together, ventilation should be
intensified.

2. Dilutes atmospheric contamination

3. Maintains the feeling of air freshness.

To ensure the necessary air flow (which should not be lower than 50 cubic metres
of air per hour per worker), air usually needs to be changed between four and
eight times per hour in offices or for sedentary workers, between eight and twelve
times per hour in workshops and as much as 15 to 30 or more times per hour for
public premises and where there are high levels of atmospheric pollution or
humidity.
Exposure to Toxic Substances

1. A first attempt should be made to remove or eliminate the hazard by

controlling the release of toxic substances into the work environment.

2. This is possible in many situations by measures such as substituting with a less

hazardous substance, enclosing the processes emitting toxic substances and
preventing leaks in joints of pipes. Providing local exhaust systems to remove
the airborne contaminants at the source is also practical and viable in some
cases.

3. Workers exposed to toxic substances should be subjected to periodic medical

examinations. Records of medical examinations should be maintained and
reviewed, to detect any changes or deterioration in the health status of
workers and to ensure that effective measures are taken to protect their
health.
 Personal Protective Equipment

For certain severe occupational hazards, neither technical prevention nor

administrative arrangements can ensure an adequate degree of protection.

 It is therefore necessary to institute a third level of defence, i.e. personal

protective equipment.

 This type of equipment is justified in emergency situations such as a severe

accident, a leak or a fire, or under exceptional circumstances such as those
attending work in confined spaces. In other cases the provision and maintenance
of this equipment may be expensive and some workers may resist its use.

 It is advisable for representatives of the management and the workers to examine

the matter jointly beforehand and to seek the opinion of the safety and health
committee.
 Personal Protective Equipment

 Where there is no other effective means of protection, the enterprise must

provide a sufficient quantity of suitable personal protective equipment, instruct
the workers in its correct use and ensure that it is worn.

 The choice of equipment should be made with the assistance of specialists, since
advice is required both on the equipment's effectiveness and on its ergonomic
characteristics, i.e. its adaptation to the worker's physical and functional
characteristics.
Ergonomics

Ergonomics is concerned with: (a) the study of the individual operator or

working team, and (b) the provision of data for design.

The aims of ergonomics are, therefore, to enhance functional effectiveness

while maintaining or improving human welfare.

For ergonomics, the task is to develop the most comfortable conditions for the
worker as regards lighting, climate and noise level, to reduce the physical
workload (in particular in hot environments), to facilitate psycho-sensorial
functions in reading instrument displays, to make the handling of machine
levers and controls easier, to make better use of spontaneous and stereotyped
responses, to avoid unnecessary information etc.
Ergonomics
Ergonomics
Ergonomics
Ergonomics
Ergonomics
 Working Time

Hours of work
The length of working time is of great importance to both workers and
employers.

Overtime
The issue of reducing long hours of work is directly related to attempts to curtail
overtime. Most countries seek to limit overtime to a strictly necessary minimum
by establishing daily, weekly, monthly or annual limits.

Breaks and rest pauses

It is now widely recognized that rest breaks during the working day prevent the
accumulation of excessive fatigue and thus lead to higher productivity.

Daily and weekly rest

About two-thirds of industrialized countries have explicit provisions on
minimum periods of daily rest, typically 11 or 12 hours. Provisions for daily rest
are often linked to restrictions on work at night.
 Working Time

Night work
Numerous studies have shown that night work can be harmful to the health of
workers, especially those who adjust poorly. Two major risks to the health of
workers on night shifts have been identified: harmful effects on sleep and
gastro-intestinal and other disorders related to changes in eating habits.

Flexible working-time arrangements

Attitudes of workers towards flexible working hours are often favourable.
Working Time

Working-time arrangements in practice:

Staggered hours
A simple way of dealing with some of the problems of fixed schedules is to
stagger the times of arrival and departure of workers. This method helps to
overcome the congestion due to simultaneous arrivals and departures of
workers, and it extends operating time.

Flexitime
Under flexitime systems, starting and finishing times and the time of the lunch
break may be decided freely by the employees, provided that all employees
are present during core time, which most often is reduced to two hours or so
in the morning and in the afternoon.

Compressed work-weeks
Under the compressed work-week system, working days are longer, but weeks
are shorter. A 38-hour week, for example, could be worked as four nine-and-a-
half-hour days.
Working Time

Working-time arrangements in practice:

Shift work
Shift work is the most widespread means of extending operating hours. The
main types of shift systems are discontinuous (morning and afternoon shifts
only, on five or six days per week), semi-continuous (continuous during the
week with a break at weekends) and continuous.

Hours-averaging, annual hours and related schemes

An innovative way of dealing with seasonal fluctuations is to establish
working-time schedules which respect agreed normal hours of work on
average but call on workers to put in more or fewer hours at particular times.
Work-related welfare facilities

Drinking-water
Safe, cool drinking-water is essential for all types of work, especially in a hot
environment.

Sanitary facilities
Hygienic sanitary facilities should exist in all workplaces. They are particularly
important where chemicals or other dangerous substances are used.
Sufficient toilet facilities, with separate facilities for men and women workers,
should be installed and conveniently located.

First-aid and medical facilities

Facilities for rendering first-aid and medical care at the workplace in case of
accidents or unforeseen sickness are directly related to the health and safety
of the workers.
Work-related welfare facilities

Rest facilities
Rest facilities can include seats, rest-rooms, waiting rooms and shelters. They
help workers to recover from fatigue and to get away from a noisy, polluted
or isolated workstation.

Feeding facilities
A snack bar, buffet or mobile trolleys can provide tea, coffee and soft drinks,
as well as light refreshments. Canteens or a restaurant can allow workers to
purchase a cheap, well-cooked and nutritious meal for a reasonable price.

Child-care facilities
Child-care facilities, including crèches and day-care centres, should be
provided. These should be in secure, airy, clean and well-lit premises.

Recreational facilities
Recreational facilities offer workers the opportunity to spend their leisure
time in activities likely to increase physical and mental well-being.
Arrangement of passageways and workstations. Ten-centimetre-thick coloured lines
(shown in black on this diagram) painted on the floor help to define work areas and
passageways
Matching the height of the vehicle bed to that of the loading bay prevents accident
and unnecessary physical effort
Workers should be discouraged from A low-lift pallet trolley is reliable, safe
working on the floor. Their backs suffer and easy to operate for carrying heavy
and their productivity is low. Stable work loads a short distance with minimum
tables and stools should be provided. elevation.
A working height which is too low can Difficult reaching for heavy
quickly cause low back pain problems containers should be avoided.
Recommended dimensions for most seated tasks
Recommended dimensions for most standing tasks
This ironing workstation requires a foot platform for a small worker to
ensure an appropriate work height slightly below elbow height.
Different solutions for footrests: a) an integrated footrest of a work table;
(b) a stool footrest; (c) a portable footrest
Most electric or
pressurized air
operated cutting
machines have
appropriate guards. It
is, however, wise
to always wear a
protective glove. This
chain-mail (metal
mesh) glove allows
safe operation when
cutting small garment
parts.
Tall windows allow natural lighting which can result in higher
productivity. Blinds need to be provided to minimize
direct sunlight and glare.
Avoid direct glare from a naked bulb. A shaded lamp should be placed at the
appropriate height.
A good contrast between garment and background helps
detect loose threads that need to be removed.
Correct positioning of lights in the sewing area when fluorescent tubes are
perpendicular to the heads of machines. Note that tubes are drawn without
shades for clarity but shades should not be removed.
Individual switches for every single workstation
could save electricity consumption.
 C
A

B D

The risk of using a single light source on a sewing workstation. Problems vary
according to its positioning: (a) light from the front and above - the working
point is difficult to see and there is often glare; (b) light from the right side and
above - this is better but much of the work item is still in shadow; (c) light from
the back and above - the head and trunk of the worker create shadows over the
working point; (d) light from the left side and above - this seems the best option.
Recommended spacing for industrial-type lighting units. The distance from the
work surface to the light fixture is h. Where there Is a passageway near to the
wall, the fixture should be at 0.75 h from the wall. When working close to
walls, the fixture should also be closer (0.5 h) to it.
(a) A factory roof and walls
made of single metal sheets
gives a very low level of
thermal insulation; (b) an
appropriate ceiling and
double layered walls can
considerably reduce heat
and cold penetration; (c)
construction of a flat
ceiling is another effective
way of reducing penetration
of radiant heat. Adopting
this solution depends on the
height at which the ceiling
can be placed.
(a) Ventilation means renewal of air; (b) air circulation means moving
internal air. Both principles contribute to better worker comfort.
Natural cross ventilation from adjustable openings on opposite sides
of a sewing room is a good solution for air renewal.
Natural air-flow routes on
buildings with different roof
designs.
Install non-slip pads or strip bands to
prevent slipping on stairs or ramps.
Rest areas for workers to lie down, relax or watch television during
break time.
A factory child-care room.
Thank You