Beginners' Python

Based on Learning Python

By Mark Lutz & David Ascher, O'Reilly
Presented by
Reg Charney
Charney@CharneyDay.com

Beginners' Python 1
Agenda
 Python References
 Python Advantages
 Python Toolkit
 Getting Python
 Running Python
 Python Principles
 Python Language and Examples
Beginners' Python 2
References
 Primary Web Site: www.python.org
 Silicon Valley User Group:www.baypiggies.org
 Learning Python by Mark Lutz & David
Ascher, O'Reilly, ISBN 1-56592-464-9
 The Quick Python Book by Daryl Harms and
Kenneth McDonald, Manning,
ISBN 1-884777-74-0
 Python and Tkinter Programming by John E.
Grayson, Manning, ISBN 1-884777-81-3

Beginners' Python 3
Python Advantages
 Object-Oriented
 Dynamic Type Checking makes it inherently
generic – C++ templates for free!
 Free, as in Open Source free
 Portable
 Powerful language constructs / features
 Powerful toolkit / library
 Mixable with other languages
 Easy to use & learn

Beginners' Python 5
Python Toolkit
 Dynamic typing
 Built-in object types
 Built-in tools
 Library utilities
 Third-party utilities
 Automatic memory management
 Programming-in-the-large support
Beginners' Python 6
How Python Is Used
 System utilities
 GUIs using Tkinter
 Component integration
 Rapid prototyping
 Internet scripting
 Database programming

Beginners' Python 7
Getting Python
 On the Web:

www.python.org

Beginners' Python 8
 Running Python (1)
 Interactively from console:
 C:> python Interactive prompt

 >>> print 2*3 No statement delimiter

 6
 As Python module files:
 C:> python mypgm.py
Python modules are text files
with .py extensions

Beginners' Python 9
Running Python (2)
 From platform specific shells
 #!/usr/local/bin/python
 print "Hello there"

Or
 #!/usr/bin/env python

 print "Hello there"

Python defined as an
environment variable

Beginners' Python 10
Running Python (3)
 Embedded in another system
 #include <Python.h>
 // . . .
 Py_Initialize();
 PyRun_SimpleString("x=pfx+root+sfx");
 // . . .
 Platform-specific invocation
 E.g., Double clicking.py files

Beginners' Python 11
Simple examples
 Built-in and explicit print
 >>> "Hello all" Builtin print gives double
 'Hello all' quotes as single quotes.
" and ' quotes are same.
 >>> print "A b"
 A b
 >>> ALongName = 177 / 3
 >>> ALongName print statement
 59 removes quotes

Beginners' Python 12
Python Principles
 Python treats everything as an object
 Python is an interpreter
 It gives immediate results
 It generates byte code (similar to Java)

Beginners' Python 13
 Can be indexed/sliced?
Can be changed in place?
Built-in Object Types
Type Ordered Mutable Examples

Numbers N/A No 3.14, 123, 99L, 1+-2j, 071, 0x0a

Strings Yes No 'A string', "A double 'ed string"

Lists Yes Yes [1, [2, 'three'], [5E-1, 10e3], -8L]

Dictionaries No Yes {'hang':'man', 'fur':'ball'}

Tuples Yes No (1, 'two', -3j, 04, 0x55, 6L)

Files N/A N/A text = open('ham','r').read()

Beginners' Python 14
Operator Precedence
Operators Description
Low x or y, lambda arguments: expression Logical OR (y evaluated only if x false), anonymous function
x and y Logical AND (y evaluated only if x is true)
not x Logical negation
<, <=, >, >=, ==, <>, !=, is, is not, in, not in Comparison operators, identity tests, sequence membership
x|y Bitwise OR
x^y Bitwise EXCLUSIVE OR
x&y Bitwise AND
x << n, x >> n Shift x left or right by n bits
x + y, x – y Numeric addition or sequence concatenation, subtraction
x * y, x / y, x % y Multiplication or sequence repetition, division, modulus
-x, +x, ~x Unary negation, identity, bitwise negation
x[i], x[i:j], x.y, x(…) Indexing and slicing sequences, qualification, function call
High (…), […], {…}, `…` Tuple, List, Dictionary, conversion to string

Beginners' Python 15
Basic Operations (1)
 Assignment creates names
 s = 'A string' # s is created
 Names can be any length
 Names are case sensitive
 >>> A = 1; a = 2; A+a
 3 Semicolons separates
statements on the same line

Beginners' Python 16
Basic Operations (2)
 Mixing numeric types promotes
operands to most inclusive type
 >>> 1/2.0 # same as 1.0/2.0
 0.5

Beginners' Python 17
Basic Operations (3)
 Boolean True is non-zero, non-NULL,
non-empty
 >>> "a"=='a', (1,2)==(1,2), [3]
 (1, 1, [3])
 Boolean False = not True
 >>> "a"!='a', (2)!=(2), not [3]
 (0, 0, 0)

Beginners' Python 18
Basic Numeric Operations
Expression Result Description

1 / 2.0 1.0 / 2.0 = 0.5 Mixing types promotes operands to most

inclusive type.

x=1 1 Assigns built-in long variable x value 1

x << 2, x | 2 (4, 3) Bit shifts left 2 bits, Bitwise OR

99999999+1 Overflow error Integer value too large for long

99999999L+1 100000000 Long values can be any size

2 + -5j, 1j * 1J ((2-5j), (-1+0j)) Complex numbers

2 + 3j * 2 (2+6j)
(2+3j) * 3 (6+9j)

Beginners' Python 19
Strings
 Sequence of immutable characters (characters can't be changed
in-place).

'a', "b" ('a', 'b')

"""Spans two
lines""" 'Spans two\012lines'
'a' * 3 + 'b' 'aaab'
('a' + 'b') * 3 'ababab'

Beginners' Python 20
 Range includes lower

String Operations bound and excludes

upper bound

'abc'[2] 'c' Index (zero based)

'abc'[1:] 'bc' Slice to end

'abc'[:-1] 'ab' Slice from start

'abc'[1:2] 'b' Slice in middle

len('abc') 3 Length

for i in 'abc': a b c Iteration

print i, Suppress new line on output

'b' in 'abc' 1 Membership

Beginners' Python 21
 Adjacent strings
String Formatting are concatenated,
like in C
 Like C's printf with similar specifiers
 "It's " '%d great life!' % 1
 "It's 1 great life!"
 '%s %s much' % ("Python's", 2)
 "Python's 2 much"
 C's backslash conventions used
 Raw strings take backslashes literally
 print "a\tc" # outputs a c
 print R"a\tc" # outputs a\tc

Beginners' Python 22
 Concatenation of similar object types

Lists (1) Append is only way of growing list

Only way of deleting an element
 Sequence of mutable heterogeneous objects (items can be
changed in-place).

[1, "a", [3, 4]] [1, 'a', [3, 4]]

[1, 2, 3][1:2] [2]

[1] + list('ab' + `76`) [1, 'a', 'b', '7', '6']

L = [1, 2, 3]; L[1] = 5; L [1, 5, 3]

L = [1, 2, 3]; del L[1]; L [1, 3]
L.append(7); L [1, 3, 7]

Beginners' Python 23
Lists (2)
 List methods work on lists, not copies
 Built-in operations work on copies
 >>> L = [1, 3]; L.append('a'); L
 [1, 3, 'a']
 >>> L + ['b'] # copies to new list
 [1, 3, 'a', 'b']
 >>> L
 [1, 3, 'a']

Beginners' Python 24
Lists (3)
 Shared references
 >>> X = [1 ,2, 3]
 >>> L = ['a', X, 'c']; L
 ['a', [1, 2, 3], 'c']
 >>> X[1] = -9; X, L
 ([1, -9, 3], ['a', [1, -9, 3], 'c'])
 >>> M = X[:] # make copy of X
 >>> X[0] = 'c'; X, M
 (['c', 2, 3], [1, 2, 3])

Beginners' Python 25
 Only way of deleting an element
Dictionaries
 Mapping of unordered immutable keys to mutable
heterogeneous objects.

D={'a':1,'b':[2,3]} {'b': [2, 3], 'a': 1}

D['a'], D['b'] (1, [2, 3])

D.keys(), len(D) (['b', 'a'], 2)

D.has_key('a') 1
D['c']=list('xy'); D {'b':[2,3],c:['x','y'],'a':1}
D.values() [[2, 3], ['x', 'y'], 1]
del D['b']; D {'c': ['x', 'y'], 'a': 1}
Beginners' Python 26
 Used to distinguish tuple
Tuples from expression

 Sequence of ordered immutable heterogeneous objects.

 Can not change number of elements in tuple.

t = ('a',{'b': 2});t ('a', {'b': 2})

t[1]['b'], len(t)+1 (2, 3)

tuple(t[0]) + t ('a', 'a', {'b': 2})

u = ('c',), u ('c')
for i in t: print i, a {'b': 2}

Beginners' Python 27
Comparisons, Equality
 In comparisons, Python automatically traverses data structures checking all objects
 Equivalence (==) tests value equality
 Identity (is) compares objects addresses

Non-null sequences: 'ab', [3], {'a':3}, (2,) True

Null sequences: "", [], {}, () False

Non-zero numeric: 1 True

Zero numeric: 0.0, 0x00 False

None False

Beginners' Python 28
Files
 Related to C's stdio.
 >>> Out = open('myF','w') # Create output file myF
 >>> L = ['line 2\n', 'line 3\n']
 >>> Out.write("line 1\n")
 >>> Out.writelines(L)
 >>> Out.close()
 >>> In = open('myF', 'r') # Open existing file myF
 >>> In.readline() # reads line 1
 'line 1\012'
 >>> In.readlines() # reads line 2 and line 3
 ['line 2\012’, 'line 3\012’]
 >>> In.close()

Beginners' Python 29
Reserved Words
and assert break class continue
def del elif else except
exec finally for from global
if import in is lambda
not or pass print raise
return try while

Beginners' Python 30
Statements
Statements normally go to the a = "xxx" #comment
end of line
Statements can be continued across lines if:
There is an open syntactic unit: (), [], {} a = [1, # comment1
2] # comment2
The statement line ends in a backslash b = 'a' \
'b'
The statement contains part of a triple c = """This is
quote (literal includes new line char (\n)) a triple quote"""
Multiple statements separated d = "abc"; print d
by semicolons (;) on same line
Beginners' Python 31
Assignment Statement
 Defines variables names referring to objects
 Forms RHS tuples and assigns pair-wise to LHS
 Implicit assignments: import, from, def, class, for, function, argument, etc.

a = "Normal assign"; a 'Normal assign'

[a, b] = [1, 2]; a, b (1, 2)
[a, b] = [b, a]; a, b (2, 1)
a = b = "men"; b = "mice"; a, b ('men', 'mice')
for c in "abc": print c, a b c

Beginners' Python 32
 Required after conditional
and else
IF Statement
 General form example:
 if 'a' <= c <= 'z':
 print 'Lower case letter'
 elif 'A' <= c <= 'Z': # optional
 print 'Upper case letter'
 else: # optional
 print 'Not a letter'

Beginners' Python 33
 Required after
conditional and else
Blocks (a.k.a. Suites)
All statements indented the same amount are
members of the same block (or suite), until
another less indented statement ends the
block (or suite).
 if 'a' <= c <= 'z':

{
 print 'Lower case letter'
 if d[c] == '':
Suite 1  print "Not in dictionary"
 else: print "Found it" # OK for one stmt
 else:

Suite 2 { print "Could not check"

Beginners' Python 34
Truth Tests
 Comparisons and equality return 1 or 0.
 Boolean and and or use "short circuit" logic to
return true or false objects
 In boolean and expressions, first false is returned
or last true value in expression.
 In boolean or expressions, first true is returned or
last false value in expression.
2 > 32, 4 < 6, 31 == 31 (0, 1, 1)
3 and 4, [3, 4] and [] (4, [])
[] and {} []
(3 < 2) or (0,), [] or {} ((0,), {})

Beginners' Python 35
WHILE Statement
 General format:
while <test> : # loop conditional
<stmt-block1> # loop body
else : # optional - run
<stmt-block2> # if no break used

a = 0; b = 5
while a < b :

print a, # outputs 0 1 2 3 4
a = a + 1
Beginners' Python 36
BREAK, CONTINUE, PASS (1)
 break terminates the innermost executing loop and
transfer control after the loop.
 continue immediately transfers control to the top of
the innermost executing loop.
 pass is the no-op statement in Python.
 while <test0> : # loop header
 <stmts1> # run if test0 true
 if <test1> : break # exit, skip else
 if <test2> : continue # go to loop header
 <stmts2> # not run if test2 true
 else :
 <stmts3> # run if didn't hit break

Beginners' Python 37
BREAK, CONTINUE, PASS (2)
 Examples of break and continue in while
 y = 2
 while y < 10 :
 y = y + 1
 if y % 2 == 0 : continue # only do odd #s
 x = y / 2
 while x > 1 :
 if y % x == 0 :
 print "%d has factor %d" % (y, x)
 break # causes else to be skipped
 x = x – 1
 else :
 print "%d is prime" % y

Beginners' Python 38
FOR Statement
 General format:
for <target> in <object> : # loop header
<stmt-block1> # loop body
else : # optional, run else clause
<stmt-block2> # if no break used

sum = 0
for x in [1, 2, 3, 5] : sum = sum + x
sum # outputs 11

Beginners' Python 39
BREAK, CONTINUE, PASS (3)
 Examples of break and continue in for.
 S = [(1, 2), (3, 4), (7, 8)]
 for (x, y) in S :
 print [x, y], # outputs [1, 2] [3, 4] [7, 8]
 L = ['Tom', 'Tina', 'Sam']
 M = ['Mary', 'Tina', 'Tom']
 for x in M :
 for y in L :
 if x == y :
 print "%s found" % x
 break
 else :
 print "%s is not in %s" % (y, M)

Beginners' Python 40
RANGE Function
 General formats, all returning a list:
range(hi) # 0 to hi-1
range(lo, hi) # lo to hi-1
range(lo, hi , incr) # lo to hi-1 by incr

>>> range(3), range(2,5), range(0,5,2)

([0, 1, 2], [2, 3, 4], [0, 2, 4])
>>> for I in range(1,5): print I,
1 2 3 4

Beginners' Python 41
Statement Gotchas
 Forgetting the colons.
 Not starting in column 1.
 Indenting inconsistently.
 Use of C/C++ conventions for blocks.
 Expecting results from all expressions.
 Some functions do not return values (they return None). Using
this value can erase results
 L = [1, 2, 3]
 L = L.append('a') # L set to None ([])
 Forgetting parenthesis after function names.
 Using file extensions on module names.

Beginners' Python 42
Named Functions
 General format:
 def name(arg0, … , argN) : # header
 <statements> # optional body
 return <object> # optional return
 def is an executable statement that creates a
function object and assigns name to it.
 Arguments are passed by reference, not
value. (i.e., as with assignment)
 Arguments, return values, and variables are
not declared.

Beginners' Python 43
Named Function Example
 Get intersection of a set of sequences
 def intersect(seq1, seq2) :
 res = []
 for x in seq1 :
 if x in seq2 :
 res.append(x)
 return res
 >>> intersect("Summer's", 'Blues')
 ['u', 'e', 's']

Beginners' Python 44
Scope Rules
 The enclosing module is the global scope.
 Each function call defines a new local scope.
 Assigned names are local unless declared
global. All other names are global or built-in.
 LGB rule – Local, Global, Built-in:
 Names are looked up first in the local function,
then the global (i.e., module) scope, and then in
the list of Built-in names.
 For name lookup purposes, enclosing function
names and the function's own name are ignored.

Beginners' Python 45
Scope Rules Example (1)
 The following will not run successfully because of
the name lookup error.
 def outer(n) :
 def inner(n) :
 if n > 1 :
 return n * inner(n-1) # err – does not
 else: # know own name
 return 1
 return inner(n)

Beginners' Python 46
Scope Rules Example (2)
 The following quick and dirty fix works, but what is
wrong with it?
 def outer(n) :
 global inner # put name in global scope
 def inner(n) :
 if n > 1 :
 return n * inner(n-1) # finds name by
 else: # LGB rule
 return 1
 return inner(n)

Beginners' Python 47
GLOBAL Statement
 Global names must be declared only if they are assigned in a
function. This does not apply to sub-objects.
 Global names may be referenced without being declared.
 A = [1, 2]; B = []
 C = {'Ann':'M'}
 def F(X) :
 print "Before: X=%s C=%s" % (X, C)
 X.append(A)
 C['Ann'] = 'F' # allowed to change sub-object
 global C # needed to change global C
 C = {} # illegal without global stmt
 print "After: X=%s C=%s" % (X, C)
 F(B) # changes B to [1, 2]

Beginners' Python 48
RETURN Statement
 return statements can return any type of object.
 def wow(x, y) :
 x = 2 * x
 y = 3 * y
 return x, y
 X = ['Hi']
 Y = ('a')
 A, B = wow(X, Y)
 >>> A, B
 (['Hi', 'Hi'], 'aaa')

Beginners' Python 49
Argument Matching (1)
 Python supports the following types of argument
matching:
 Positional – normal left to right matching
 Keywords – matched by argument name
 Varargs – what remains after positional and keyword
arguments matched
 Defaults – specified values for missing arguments

Beginners' Python 50
Argument Matching Forms
Form Where Description
F(val) Caller Matched by position.
F(name=val) Caller Matched by name.
def F(name) : Definition Position parameter.
def F(name=val) : Definition Default value for named parameter, if
parameter not used by caller.
def F(*name) : Definition Matches remaining positional parameters
by forming a tuple. Must appear after all
positional parameters.
def F(**name) : Definition Matches remaining keyword parameters
by forming a dictionary. Must appear after
all positional parameters and *name
parameter, if any.

Beginners' Python 51
Argument Matching Example
 def w(p1='defval1', p2='defval2', *pa, **na):
 print [p1, p2, pa, na]
 >>> w(5, unknown=4)
 [5, 'defval2', (), {'unknown': 4}]
 >>> w(5, 6, 7, unknown=4)
 [5, 6, (7,), {'unknown': 4}]

 Note: Positional arguments must appear before keyword

arguments in call to function. Thus, the following is illegal:
 >>> w(unknown='a', 5)

Beginners' Python 52
LAMBDA Expressions
 lambda expressions define anonymous functions.
 They can appear anywhere an expression can
appear, unlike statements that are limited.
 They return a value.
 They have the form:
 lambda arg1, arg2, … , argN : <expression>
 Example:
 >>> F = lambda a1=3, a2=4 : a1 * a2
 >>> F(3) # keyword & default args allowed
 12

Beginners' Python 53
APPLY Built-in
 The apply function allows arbitrary functions to
be invoked with equally arbitrary arguments.
 apply has the form:
 apply(fcn, args)
 Example:
 def generic(arg1, arg2=0, arg3=0) :
 if arg2 is arg3 :
 f, a = f1, (arg1, )
 else :
 f, a = f2, (arg2, arg3)
 return apply(f, a)

Beginners' Python 54
MAP Built-in
 The map function applies the same operation to
each element in a sequence.
 map has the form:
 map(fcn, sequence)
 Example:
 >>> map(lambda arg : arg / 2, (1, 2, 3))
 [0, 1, 1]

Beginners' Python 55
Function Gotchas
 Local names detected statically.
 def f():
 print B # error – B not yet defined
 B = 2;
 Nested functions are not nested scopes.
 Default values are saved when def is run,
not when the function is called.

Beginners' Python 56
Modules (1)
 Modules are implemented using files.
 Module source files have a .py
extension.
 Compiled byte code modules have .pyc
extension.

Beginners' Python 57
Modules (2)
 Each module defines a new namespace.
 Loading a module executes it.
 Top-level names inside a module
become defined when it loads.
 Top-level names in modules are called
attributes.

Beginners' Python 58
Loading Modules
 There are 3 ways to load a module:
Statement Description
import mymod Loads mymod module. Executes
module only the first time it is loaded.
from mymod import a, b Loads mymod module and creates
local names a and b referencing
objects with the same name inside
the module mymod.
Reload(mymod) Reload function loads module
mymod, re-executing mymod each
time it is reloaded.

Beginners' Python 59
 Qualified names
Import Statement (1)
 Using the import statement:
>>> import sigma1 # sigma1.py - test module
Loaded module sigma1 counter = 1
>>> sigma1.counter def Sigma(L) :
1 sum = 0
>>> sigma1.Sigma([1, 2, 3]) for x in L : sum = sum + x
6 return sum
>>> sigma1.counter = 2 print "Loaded module sigma1"
>>> import sigma1
>>> sigma1.counter print not executed and counter
2 not reset on second import

Beginners' Python 60
Qualified Names
 Qualified names have form: a.b.….z
 Qualification can be used with anything
that has attributes.
 Unqualified names use the LGB rule.
 a.b.c means first find attribute b in
object a and then find attribute c in
a.b. Qualification ignores the LGB rule.

Beginners' Python 61
IMPORT Statement (2)
 Both import and from are forms of
assignment statements
 import assigns a name to the module
object.
 >>> import mymod
 >>> mymod
 <module 'mymod' from 'mymod.py'>

Beginners' Python 62
FROM Statement (1)
 Assume module ModA contains:
 A = 1; C = 2; D = 4; # no B defined
 If the following is entered:
 >>> A = 99; B = 98; C = 97; D = 96
 >>> from ModA import A, C
 >>> print A, B, C, D
 1 98 2 96
 A from imported name replaces any
previously defined local variable having the
same name (see variables A and C).
Beginners' Python 63
FROM Statement (2)
 from does not assign the module name.
 from is equivalent to:
 from mymod import name1, name2, . . .
 Which is the same as:
 import mymod # load module and name
 name1 = mymod.name1 # copy name1 by assign
 name2 = mymod.name2 # copy name2 by assign
 . . .
 del mymod # delete module name

Beginners' Python 64
FROM Statement (3)
 from <module> import *
 Imports all top level names from <module> into the
current module's namespace, except names starting
with an underscore (_).
 This has grave potential for name conflicts
 >>> A = 99; B = 98; C = 97; D = 96
 >>> from ModA import *
 >>> print A, B, C, D
 1 2 3 4
 >>> A = 99; B = 98; C = 97
 >>> import ModA
 >>> print A, B, C, ModA.A, ModA.B, ModA.C
 99 98 97 1 2 3

Beginners' Python 65
RELOAD Function (1)
 import runs a module only the first time it is
loaded. Subsequent imports of the same
module uses the existing code without
rerunning it.
 reload is a built-in function that forces an
already loaded module to be reloaded and
rerun. The module must already exist.
 import mymod
 . . .
 reload(mymod)

Beginners' Python 66
RELOAD Function (2)
 reload rereads the module's source code
and reruns its top-level code.
 It changes a module object in-place so all
references to the module are updated.
 reload runs the module file's new code in same
namespace as before.
 Top-level assignments replace existing names
with new values.
 reload impacts clients using imported names.
 reload impacts only future use of old objects.

Beginners' Python 67