Chapter III : Data Description

STATISTICS
 Contents
• Measures of Central Tendency
• Measures of Variation
• Measures of Position
• Exploratory Data Analysis
 Objectives:
• Summarize data, using measures of central
tendency, such as the mean, median, mode, and
midrange.
• Describe data, using measures of variation, such as
the range, variance, and standard deviation.
• Identify the position of a data value in a data set,
using various measures of position, such as
percentiles, deciles, and quartiles.
• Use the techniques of exploratory data analysis,
including boxplots and five-number summaries, to
discover various aspects of data.
 Introduction
• Statistic methods can be used to summarize
data.
• Measures of average are also called measures
of central tendency and include the mean.
Media, mod, and midrange.
• Measures that determine the spread of data
values are called measures of variation or
measures of dispersion and include the range,
variance, and standard deviation.
 Introduction
• Measure of position tell where a specific data
value falls within the data set or its relative
position in comparison with other data values.
• The most common measures of position are
percentiles, deciles, and quartiles.
• The measures of central tendency, variation,
and position are part of what is called
traditional statistics. This type of data is
typically used to confirm conjectures about the
data
 Introduction
• Another type of statistics is called exploratory
data analysis. These techniques include the
box plot and the five-number summary. They
can be used to explore data to see what they
show
 Topic 1: Measures of Central Tendency
Some basic definition
• A statistic is a characteristic or measure obtained
by using the data values from a sample.
• A parameter is a characteristic or measure
obtained by using all the data values from a
specific population.
• When the data in a data set is ordered it is called
a data array.
 Measures of Central Tendency
General Rounding Rule
• In statistics the basic rounding rule is that when
computations are done in the calculation, rounding
should not be done until the final answer is
calculated
 Topic 1: Measures of Central Tendency
The Mean
• The mean, also known as the arithmetic average,
is found by adding the values of the data and
dividing by the total number of values.
• Rounding Rule for the Mean The mean should
be rounded to one more decimal place than
occurs in the raw data.
For example,
The mean of 3, 2, 6, 5, and 4 is found by adding
3 + 2 + 6 + 5 + 4 = 20 and dividing by 5; hence,
the mean of the data is 20/5 = 4.
 Measures of Central Tendency
• The
  mean is the sum of the values, divided by the total
number of values. The symbol represents the sample
mean.

where n represents the total number of values in the

sample.
• For a population mean, the Greek letter (mu) is used for
the mean.

where N represents the total number of values in the

population.
 Measures of Central Tendency
Example
•  The data represent the number of days off per
year for a sample of individuals selected from
nine different countries. Find the mean
20, 26, 40, 36, 23, 42, 35, 24, 30

Hence, the mean of the number of days off is

30.7 days.
 Measures of Central Tendency
Finding the Mean for Grouped Data
 Measures of Central Tendency
Example
• Using the frequency distribution for Example
2–7, find the mean. The data represent the
number of miles run during one week for a
sample of 20 runners.
 Measures of Central Tendency
Step 1: Make a table as shown
 Measures of Central Tendency
•Step
  2: Find the midpoints of each class and
enter them in column C.

….. etc.
 Measures of Central Tendency
Step 3: For each class, multiply the frequency by
the midpoint, as shown, and place the product in
column D.
 Measures of Central Tendency
•Step
  4: Find the sum of column D:

Step 5: Divide the sum by n to get the mean

 Measures of Central Tendency
The weight mean
•  The type of mean that considers an additional
factor is called the weighted mean, and it is used
when the values are not all equally represented.
 Measures of Central Tendency
Example
• A student received an A in English
Composition I (3 credits), a C in Introduction
to Psychology (3 credits), a B in Biology I (4
credits), and a D in Physical Education (2
credits).
Assuming A= 4 grade points, B = 3 grade points,
C =2 grade points, D= 1 grade point, and F = 0
grade points, find the student’s grade point
average.
 Measures of Central Tendency
Solution:

The grade point average is 2.7.

 Measures of Central Tendency
The Median
• The median is the midpoint of the data array. The
symbol for the median is MD.
• Before you can find this point, the data must be
arranged in order. (When the data set is ordered,
it is called a data array)
• The median either will be a specific value in the
data set or will fall between two values.
 Measures of Central Tendency
Steps in computing the median of a data array
• Step 1 Arrange the data in order.
• Step 2 Select the middle point.
 Measures of Central Tendency
Example
• The number of rooms in the seven hotels in downtown
Pittsburgh is 713, 300, 618, 595, 311, 401, and 292. Find
the median.
Solution
Step 1 Arrange the data in order.
292, 300, 311, 401, 595, 618, 713
Step 2 Select the middle value.
292, 300, 311, 401, 595, 618, 713
↑
Median
Hence, the median is 401 rooms.
 Measures of Central Tendency
Example
Find the median for the daily vehicle pass charge
for five U.S. National Parks. The costs are $25,
$15, $15, $20, and $15.
Solution
$15 $15 $15 $20 $25
↑
Median
The median cost is $15.
 Measures of Central Tendency
Example
•The
  number of tornadoes that have occurred in the
United States over an 8-year period follows. Find the
median.
684, 764, 656, 702, 856, 1133, 1132, 1303
Solution
656, 684, 702, 764, 856, 1132, 1133, 1303
↑
Median

The median number of tornadoes is 810.

 Measures of Central Tendency
The mode
• The mode is the value that occurs most often in
the data set. It is sometimes said to be the most
typical case.
• The value that occurs most often in a data set is
called the mode.
• The mode for grouped data is the modal class.
The modal class is the class with the largest
frequency.
 Measures of Central Tendency
• A data set that has only one value that occurs
with the greatest frequency is said to be
unimodal.
• If a data set has two values that occur with the
same greatest frequency, both values are
considered to be the mode and the data set is said
to be bimodal.
• If a data set has more than two values that occur
with the same greatest frequency, each value is
used as the mode, and the data set is said to be
multimodal.
 Measures of Central Tendency
Example
• Find the mode of the signing bonuses of eight NFL
players for a specific year. The bonuses in millions of
dollars are
18.0, 14.0, 34.5, 10, 11.3, 10, 12.4, 10
Solution
It is helpful to arrange the data in order although it is
not necessary.
10, 10, 10, 11.3, 12.4, 14.0, 18.0, 34.5
Since $10 million occurred 3 times—a frequency larger
than any other number—the mode is $10 million.
 Measures of Central Tendency
Example
• Find the mode for the number of branches that
six banks have.
401, 344, 209, 201, 227, 353
Solution
Since each value occurs only once, there is no
mode.
Note: Do not say that the mode is zero. That would
be incorrect, because in some data, such as
temperature, zero can be an actual value.
 Measures of Central Tendency
Example
• The data show the number of licensed nuclear
reactors in the United States for a recent 15-year
period. Find the mode.
104 104 104 104 104
107 109 109 109 110
109 111 112 111 109
Solution
Since the values 104 and 109 both occur 5 times, the
modes are 104 and 109. The data set is said to be
bimodal.
 Measures of Central Tendency
Example
• Find the modal class for the frequency
distribution of miles that 20 runners ran in one
week.

Solution
 Measures of Central Tendency
Example
A small company consists of the owner, the
manager, the salesperson, and two technicians, all
of whose annual salaries are listed here. (Assume
that this is the entire population.)

Find the mean, median and mode

 Measures of Central Tendency
•The
  mean (population mean):

Hence, the mean is $20,000 ;

the median is $12,000;
and the mode is $9,000.
 Measures of Central Tendency
The midrange
•  The midrange is defined as the sum of the lowest
and highest values in the data set, divided by 2.
The symbol MR is used for the midrange.
 Measures of Central Tendency
Example
•In the last two winter seasons, the city of
Brownsville, Minnesota, reported these numbers of
water-line breaks per month. Find the midrange.
2, 3, 6, 8, 4, 1
Solution:

Hence, the midrange is 4.5.

 Measures of Central Tendency
Example
•Find
  the midrange of data for the NFL signing
bonuses in Example 3–9. The bonuses in millions
of dollars are
18.0, 14.0, 34.5, 10, 11.3, 10, 12.4, 10
Solution:
 Measures of Central Tendency
Summary of measures of central tendency
 Measures of Central Tendency
Properties and Uses of Central Tendency
The Mean
1. The mean is found by using all the values of the
data.
2. The mean varies less than the median or mode
when samples are taken from the same
population and all three measures are computed for
these samples.
3. The mean is used in computing other statistics,
such as the variance.
 Measures of Central Tendency
4. The mean for the data set is unique and not
necessarily one of the data values.
5. The mean cannot be computed for the data in
a frequency distribution that has an open-ended
class.
6. The mean is affected by extremely high or low
values, called outliers, and may not be the
appropriate average to use in these situations.
 Measures of Central Tendency
The Median
1. The median is used to find the center or middle
value of a data set.
2. The median is used when it is necessary to find
out whether the data values fall into the upper half
or lower half of the distribution.
3. The median is used for an open-ended
distribution.
4. The median is affected less than the mean by
extremely high or extremely low values.
 Measures of Central Tendency
The Mode
1. The mode is used when the most typical case is
desired.
2. The mode is the easiest average to compute.
3. The mode can be used when the data are
nominal or categorical, such as religious
preference, gender, or political affiliation.
4. The mode is not always unique. A data set can
have more than one mode, or the mode may not
exist for a data set.
 Measures of Central Tendency
The Midrange
1. The midrange is easy to compute.
2. The midrange gives the midpoint.
3. The midrange is affected by extremely high or
low values in a data set.
 Measures of Central Tendency
Distribution Shapes
• In a positively skewed or
right-skewed distribution,
the majority of the data
values fall to the left of the
mean and cluster at the
lower end of the distribution;
• Also, the mean is to the right
of the median, and the mode
is to the left of the median.
 Measures of Central Tendency

• In a symmetric distribution,
the data values are evenly
distributed on both sides of
the mean. In addition,
when the distribution is
unimodal, the mean,
median, and mode are the
same and are at the center
of the distribution.
 Measures of Central Tendency

• When the majority of the

data values fall to the right
of the mean and cluster at
the upper end of the
distribution, with the tail to
the left, the distribution is
said to be negatively
skewed or left-skewed.
• Also, the mean is to the left
of the median, and the
 Measures of Central Tendency
Applying the concepts
Read Applying the Concepts 3-1 page 118 (158 in pdf) and answer questions.
1. First, assume you work for the school board in Greenwood and do not wish to
raise taxes to increase salaries. Compute the mean, median, and mode, and
decide which one would best support your position to not raise salaries.
2. Second, assume you work for the teachers’ union and want a raise for the
teachers. Use the best measure of central tendency to support your position.
3. Explain how outliers can be used to support one or the other position.
4. If the salaries represented every teacher in the school district, would the
averages be parameters or statistics?
5. Which measure of central tendency can be misleading when a data set
contains outliers?
6. When you are comparing the measures of central tendency, does the
distribution display any skewness? Explain.
 Topic 2: Measures of Variation

Some basic definition

• In statistics, to describe the data set accurately,
statisticians must know more than the measures
of central tendency.
• Consider Example 3–18.
• In this section we will discussed about: range,
variance, and standard deviation
 Measures of Variation

The range
• The range is the highest value minus the lowest
value. The symbol R is used for the range.
R = highest value - lowest value
 Measures of Variation

Example
• The salaries for the staff of the XYZ
Manufacturing Co. are shown here. Find the
range.

Solution
The range is R = $100,000 - $15,000 =$85,000.
 Measures of Variation

Population Variance
•  The variance is the average of the squares of the
distance each value is from the mean. The
symbol for the population variance is . The
formula for the population variance is

where
X = individual value
= population mean
N = population size
 Measures of Variation

Population Standard deviation

•  The population standard deviation is the square
root of the population variance. The symbol for
the population standard deviation is .
• The corresponding formula for the population
standard deviation is
 Measures of Variation

Population Variance and Standard Deviation

• Rounding Rule for the Standard Deviation The
rounding rule for the standard deviation is the
same as that for the mean.
• The final answer should be rounded to one more
decimal place than that of the original data.
 Measures of Variation

Example
•  Find the variance and standard deviation for the
data set for brand B paint in Example 3.18
The months were:
35, 45, 30, 35, 40, 25
Solution:
Step1: find the mean (population mean)
 Measures of Variation

Step 2 Subtract the mean from each value, and

place the result in column B of the table.
Step 3 Square each result and place the squares in
column C of the table.
 Measures of Variation
•Step
  4 Find the sum of the squares in column C.

Step 5 Divide the sum by N to get the variance.

Step 6 Take the square root to get the standard

deviation.

Hence, the standard deviation is 6.5.

 Measures of Variation

Sample Variance
•  The formula for the sample variance, denoted by
s2, is

where
X = individual value
= sample mean
n = sample size
 Measures of Variation

Sample standard deviation

•  The formula for the sample deviation, denoted
by s, is

where
X = individual value
= sample mean
n = sample size
 Measures of Variation

Shortcut or Computational Formulas for s2 and s

•  The formula for the sample variance, denoted by
s2, is

• The formula for the sample deviation, denoted

by s, is
 Measures of Variation

Example
•  Find the sample variance and standard deviation
for the amount of European auto sales for a
sample of 6 years shown. The data are in
millions of dollars.
11.2, 11.9, 12.0, 12.8, 13.4, 14.3
Solution:
Step1: find the sum of values
 Measures of Variation

•Step
  2 Square each value and find the sum.
 Measures of Variation

•Step
  3 Substitute in the formulas and solve.

The variance is 1.28 rounded.

Hence, the sample standard deviation is 1.13

 Measures of Variation

Variance and Standard Deviation for Grouped Data

• The procedure for finding the variance and
standard deviation for grouped data is similar to
that for finding the mean for grouped data, and it
uses the midpoints of each class.
 Measures of Variation

Finding the Sample Variance and Standard Deviation

for Grouped Data
 Measures of Variation

Solution
Step 1: Make a table as shown, and find the
midpoint of each class.
 Measures of Variation

•Step
  2 Multiply the frequency by the midpoint for
each class, and place the products in column D.

Step 3 Multiply the frequency by the square of the

midpoint, and place the products in column E.
 Measures of Variation

•Step
  4 Find the sums of columns B, D, and E. The
sum of column B is n, the sum of column D is and
the sum of column E is . The completed table is
shown.
 Measures of Variation

•Step
  5 Substitute in the formulas and solve.

Step 6 Take the square root to get the standard

deviation.

Hence, the sample standard deviation is 8.3

 Measures of Variation
Summary of Measures of Variation
 Measures of Variation
Uses of the Variance and Standard Deviation
1. As previously stated, variances and standard
deviations can be used to determine the
spread of the data. If the variance or standard
deviation is large, the data are more
dispersed. This information is useful in
comparing two (or more) data sets to
determine which is more (most) variable.
 Measures of Variation

2. The measures of variance and standard

deviation are used to determine the consistency
of a variable. For example, in the manufacture of
fittings, such as nuts and bolts, the variation in
the diameters must be small, or the parts will not
fit together.
 Measures of Variation
3. The variance and standard deviation are used to
determine the number of data values that fall
within a specified interval in a distribution. For
example, Chebyshev’s theorem (explained later)
shows that, for any distribution, at least 75% of
the data values will fall within 2 standard
deviations of the mean.
4. Finally, the variance and standard deviation are
used quite often in inferential statistics. These uses
will be shown in later chapters of this textbook.
 Measures of Variation
Coefficient of Variation
•  A statistic that allows you to compare standard
deviations when the units are different, as in this
example, is called the coefficient of variation.
• The coefficient of variation, denoted by CVar, is
the standard deviation divided by the mean. The
result is expressed as a percentage.
For samples:
For populations:
 Measures of Variation
Example
• The mean of the number of sales of cars over a
3-month period is 87, and the standard deviation
is 5. The mean of the commissions is $5225,
and the standard deviation is $773. Compare the
variations of the two.
 Measures of Variation
•The
  coefficients of variation are
(sales)
(commissions)

Since the coefficient of variation is larger for

commissions, the commissions are more variable
than the sales.
 Measures of Variation
Example
• The mean for the number of pages of a sample
of women’s fitness magazines is 132, with a
variance of 23; the mean for the number of
advertisements of a sample of women’s fitness
magazines is 182, with a variance of 62.
Compare the variations.
 Measures of Variation
•The
  coefficients of variation are
(pages)
(advertisements)

The number of advertisements is more variable

than the number of pages since the coefficient of
variation is larger for advertisements.
 Measures of Variation
Range Rule of Thumb
•  The range can be used to approximate the
standard deviation. The approximation is called
the range rule of thumb.
• A rough estimate of the standard deviation is
 Measures of Variation
Chebyshev’s Theorem
•  The proportion of values from a data set that
will fall within k standard deviations of the
mean will be at least , where k is a number
greater than 1 (k is not necessarily an integer).
 Measures of Variation
Example
• The mean price of houses in a certain
neighborhood is $50,000, and the standard
deviation is $10,000. Find the price range for
which at least 75% of the houses will sell.
 Measures of Variation
Solution
Chebyshev’s theorem states that three-fourths, or
75%, of the data values will fall within 2 standard
deviations of the mean. Thus,
$50,000 + 2($10,000) = $50,000+$20,000 =$70,000
and
$50,000 -2($10,000) = $50,000 - $20,000 = $30,000
Hence, at least 75% of all homes sold in the area
will have a price range from $30,000 to $70,000.
 Measures of Variation
Example
A survey of local companies found that the mean
amount of travel allowance for executives was
$0.25 per mile. The standard deviation was
$0.02. Using Chebyshev’s theorem, find the
minimum percentage of the data values that will
fall between $0.20 and $0.30.
 Measures of Variation
•Solution
 
Step 1 Subtract the mean from the larger value.
$0.30 - $0.25 = $0.05
Step 2 Divide the difference by the standard deviation to
get k.

Step 3 Use Chebyshev’s theorem to find the percentage.

or 84%

Hence, at least 84% of the data values will fall between

$0.20 and $0.30.
 Measures of Variation
The Empirical (Normal) Rule
• Chebyshev’s theorem applies to any distribution
regardless of its shape. However, when a
distribution is bell-shaped (or what is called
normal), the following statements, which make
up the empirical rule, are true.
Measures of Variation
 Measures of Variation
• Approximately 68% of the data values will fall
within 1 standard deviation of the mean.
• Approximately 95% of the data values will fall
within 2 standard deviations of the mean.
• Approximately 99.7% of the data values will
fall within 3 standard deviations of the mean.
 Measures of Variation
Applying the concepts
Read Applying the Concepts 3-2 page 137 (177 in pdf) and answer
questions.
1. Apply Chebyshev’s theorem to the systolic blood pressure of
normotensive men. At least how many of the men in the study fall
within 1 standard deviation of the mean?
2. At least how many of those men in the study fall within 2 standard
deviations of the mean?
• Assume that blood pressure is normally distributed among older
adults. Answer the following questions, using the empirical rule
instead of Chebyshev’s theorem.
3. Give ranges for the diastolic blood pressure (normotensive and
hypertensive) of older women.
4. Do the normotensive, male, systolic blood pressure ranges overlap
with the hypertensive, male, systolic blood pressure ranges?
 Topic 3: Measures of Position
Some basic definition
• In addition to measures of central tendency and
measures of variation, there are measures of
position or location. These measures include
standard scores, percentiles, deciles, and
quartiles. They are used to locate the relative
position of a data value in the data set.
• This section discusses these measures of
position.
 Measures of Position
Standard Scores
• A standard score or z score tells how many
standard deviations a data value is above or
below the mean for a specific distribution of
values. If a standard score is zero, then the data
value is the same as the mean.

• A z score or standard score for a value is

obtained by subtracting the mean from the value
and dividing the result by the standard deviation.
 Measures of Position
• The
  symbol for a standard score is z. The formula
is

• For samples, the formula is

• For populations, the formula is

• The z score represents the number of standard

deviations that a data value falls above or below
the mean.
 Measures of Position
Example
• A student scored 65 on a calculus test that had a
mean of 50 and a standard deviation of 10; she
scored 30 on a history test with a mean of 25 and
a standard deviation of 5. Compare her relative
positions on the two tests.
 Measures of Position
•Solution
 
• First, find the z scores. For calculus the z score is

• For history the z score is

• Since the z score for calculus is larger, her

relative position in the calculus class is higher
than her relative position in the history class.
 Measures of Position
Example
• Find the z score for each test, and state which is
higher.
 Measures of Position
•Solution
 
• For test A,

• For test B,

• The score for test A is relatively higher than the

score for test B.
 Measures of Position
Percentiles
• Percentiles are position measures used in educational
and health-related fields to indicate the position of an
individual in a group.
• Percentiles divide the data set into 100 equal groups.
• A percentile, P, is an integer between 1 and 99 such
that the Pth percentile is a value where P% of the data
values are less than or equal to the value and 100-P%
of the data values are greater than or equal to the
value
• Percentiles are not the same as percentages.
 Measures of Position
Example
• The frequency distribution for the systolic blood
pressure readings (in millimeters of mercury, mm
Hg) of 200 randomly selected college students is
shown here. Construct a percentile graph.
 Measures of Position
•Solution
 
Step 1 Find the cumulative frequencies and place
them in column C.
Step 2 Find the cumulative percentages and place
them in column D. To do this step, use the formula

For the first class,

 Measures of Position
The completed table is shown here.
 Measures of Position
Step 3 Graph the data, using class boundaries for
the x axis and the percentages for the y axis, as
shown here.
 Measures of Position
Finding values
and the corresponding percentile ranks

•The
  percentile corresponding to a given value X is
computed by using the following formula:
 Measures of Position
Example
• A teacher gives a 20-point test to 10 students.
The scores are shown here. Find the percentile
rank of a score of 12.
18, 15, 12, 6, 8, 2, 3, 5, 20, 10
Solution
Arrange the data in order from lowest to highest.
2, 3, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 15, 18, 20
 Measures of Position
•  Then substitute into the formula.

Since there are six values below a score of 12, the

solution is:

Thus, a student whose score was 12 did better than

65% of the class.
 Measures of Position
Finding a Data Value
Corresponding to a Given Percentile
 Measures of Position
Example
• Using the scores in previous example, find the
value corresponding to the 25th percentile.
18, 15, 12, 6, 8, 2, 3, 5, 20, 10
Solution
Step 1 Arrange the data in order from lowest to
highest.
2, 3, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 15, 18, 20
 Measures of Position
•Step
  2 Compute

Where
n= total number of values
p= percentile
Thus
 Measures of Position
Step 3 If c is not a whole number, round it up to
the next whole number; in this case, c = 3. Start at
the lowest value and count over to the third value,
which is 5. Hence, the value 5 corresponds
to the 25th percentile.
2, 3, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 15, 18, 20
 Measures of Position
Example
•  Using the data set in Example 3–32, find the
value that corresponds to the 60th percentile.
18, 15, 12, 6, 8, 2, 3, 5, 20, 10
Solution
Step 1 Arrange the data in order from lowest to
highest.
2, 3, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 15, 18, 20
Step 2 Compute
 Measures of Position
•   3 If c is a whole number, use the value halfway
Step
between the c and c +1 values when counting up from the
lowest value—in this case, the 6th and 7th values.
2, 3, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 15, 18, 20
↑ ↑
6th value 7th value
The value halfway between 10 and 12 is 11. Find it by
adding the two values and dividing by 2.

Hence, 11 corresponds to the 60th percentile. Anyone

scoring 11 would have done better than 60% of the class.
 Measures of Position
Quartiles
• Quartiles divide the distribution into four groups,
separated by Q1, Q2, Q3.
• Note that Q1 is the same as the 25th percentile;
Q2 is the same as the 50th percentile, or the
median; Q3 corresponds to the 75th percentile,
as shown:
 Measures of Position
Finding Data Values Corresponding to Q1, Q2, and Q3
• Step 1 Arrange the data in order from lowest to
highest.
• Step 2 Find the median of the data values. This is
the value for Q2.
• Step 3 Find the median of the data values that
fall below Q2. This is the value for Q1.
• Step 4 Find the median of the data values that
fall above Q2. This is the value for Q3.
 Measures of Position
Example
• Find
  Q1 , Q2 , and Q3 for the data set 15, 13, 6, 5, 12,
50, 22, 18.
Solution
Step 1 Arrange the data in order.
5, 6, 12, 13, 15, 18, 22, 50
Step 2 Find the median (Q2).
5, 6, 12, 13, 15, 18, 22, 50
↑
MD
 Measures of Position
•Step
  3 Find the median of the data values less than 14.
5, 6, 12, 13
↑
Q1

Step 4 Find the median of the data values greater than 14.
15, 18, 22, 50
↑
Q3

Here Q3 is 20. Hence, Q1 = 9, Q2 = 14, and Q3 = 20.

Example: The normal daily high temperatures
(in degrees Fahrenheit) in January for 10
selected cities are as follows.
50, 37, 29, 54, 30, 61, 47, 38, 34, 61
• Find midrange, mode, median.
• Find quartiles.
• Find percentiles of 54.
Example: The normal daily high temperatures (in
degrees Fahrenheit) in January for 10 selected
cities are as follows.
20, 35, 31, 52, 60, 100,31, 47, 48, 54, 61
• Find midrange, mode, median.
• Find quartiles.
• Find percentiles of 54.
• Find the value corresponding to the 75th
percentile
 Measures of Position
Deciles
• Deciles divide the distribution into 10 groups, as
shown. They are denoted by D1, D2, etc.
 Measures of Position
Summary of Position Measures
 Measures of Position
Outliers
• A data set should be checked for extremely high or
extremely low values. These values are called outliers.
• An outlier is an extremely high or an extremely low
data value when compared with the rest of the data
values.
• Outliers can be the result of measurement or
observational error.
• When a distribution is normal or bell-shaped data
values that are beyond three standard deviations of
mean can be considered suspected outliers
 Measures of Position
Procedure for Identifying Outliers
 Measures of Position
Example
•Check
  the following data set for outliers.
5, 6, 12, 13, 15, 18, 22, 50
Solution
The data value 50 is extremely suspect. These
are the steps in checking for an outlier.
Step 1 Find Q1 and Q3. This was done in
Example 3–36; Q1 is 9 and Q3 is 20.
Step 2 Find the interquartile range (IQR), which
is
 Measures of Position

Step 3 Multiply this value by 1.5.

1.5 (11) = 16.5
Step 4 Subtract the value obtained in step 3 from
Q1, and add the value obtained in step 3 to Q3.
9 - 16.5 =-7.5 and 20 + 16.5 = 36.5
Step 5 Check the data set for any data values
that fall outside the interval from -7.5 to 36.5.
The value 50 is outside this interval; hence, it
can be considered an outlier.
 Measures of Variation
Applying the concepts
Read Applying the Concepts 3-3 page 153 (193 in pdf) and
answer questions.
1. Which measures of position could be used to help
describe the data results?
2. If 40% of the mice in the top quartile survived after the
injection, how many mice would that be?
3. What information can be given from using percentiles?
4. What information can be given from using quartiles?
5. What information can be given from using standard
scores?
Topic 4: Exploratory Data Analysis
Some basic definition
• The purpose of exploratory data analysis (EDA)
is to examine data in order to find out what
information can be discovered. For example:
 Are there any gaps in the data ?
 Can any patterns be discerned ?
• In EDA the data are represented graphically
using a boxplot (sometimes called a box-and-
whisker plot).
 Exploratory Data Analysis
Boxplots
• A boxplot is a graph of a data set obtained by
drawing a horizontal line from the minimum data
value to Q1, drawing a horizontal line from Q3
to the maximum data value, and drawing a box
whose vertical sides pass through Q1 and Q3
with a vertical line inside the box passing
through the median or Q2.
 Exploratory Data Analysis
The Five-Number Summary and Boxplots
• A boxplot can be used to graphically represent the
data set. These plots involve five specific values:
• 1. The lowest value of the data set (i.e., minimum)
• 2. Q1 (or 25th percentile)
• 3. The median (or 50th percentile)
• 4. Q3 (or 75th percentile)
• 5. The highest value of the data set (i.e., maximum)
These values are called a five-number summary of
the data set.
 Exploratory Data Analysis
Procedure for constructing a boxplot
1. Find the five-number summary for the data
values, that is, the maximum and minimum data
values, Q1 and Q3, and the median.
2. Draw a horizontal axis with a scale such that it
includes the maximum and minimum data values.
3. Draw a box whose vertical sides go through Q1
and Q3, and draw a vertical line though the median.
4. Draw a line from the minimum data value to the
left side of the box and a line from the maximum
data value to the right side of the box.
 Exploratory Data Analysis
Example
•The
  number of meteorites found in 10 states of the
United States is 89, 47, 164, 296, 30,215, 138, 78, 48,
39. Construct a boxplot for the data.
Solution
Step 1 Arrange the data in order:
30, 39, 47, 48, 78, 89, 138, 164, 215, 296
Step 2 Find the median.
30, 39, 47, 48, 78, 89, 138, 164, 215, 296
↑
Median
 Exploratory Data Analysis
Step 3 Find Q1.
30, 39, 47, 48, 78
↑
Q1
Step 4 Find Q3.
89, 138, 164, 215, 296
↑
Q3
 Exploratory Data Analysis
Step 5 Draw a scale for the data on the x axis.
Step 6 Locate the lowest value, Q1, median, Q3,
and the highest value on the scale.
Step 7 Draw a box around Q1 and Q3, draw a
vertical line through the median, and connect the
upper value and the lower value to the box.
 Exploratory Data Analysis
Step 5 Draw a scale for the data on the x axis.
Step 6 Locate the lowest value, Q1, median, Q3,
and the highest value on the scale.
Step 7 Draw a box around Q1 and Q3, draw a
vertical line through the median, and connect the
upper value and the lower value to the box.
 Exploratory Data Analysis
Information Obtained from a Boxplot
1.
a. If the median is near the center of the box, the
distribution is approximately symmetric.
b. If the median falls to the left of the center of the
box, the distribution is positively skewed.
c. If the median falls to the right of the center, the
distribution is negatively skewed.
 Exploratory Data Analysis
Information Obtained from a Boxplot
2.
a. If the lines are about the same length, the
distribution is approximately symmetric.
b. If the right line is larger than the left line, the
distribution is positively skewed.
c. If the left line is larger than the right line, the
distribution is negatively skewed.
 Exploratory Data Analysis
Example
A dietitian is interested in comparing the sodium
content of real cheese with the sodium content of a
cheese substitute. The data for two random samples
are shown. Compare the distributions, using
boxplots.
 Exploratory Data Analysis

•Solution
 
Step 1 Find Q1, MD, and Q3 for the real cheese
data.
40 45 90 180 220 240 310 420
↑ ↑ ↑
Q1 MD Q3
 Exploratory Data Analysis

•Step
  2 Find Q1, MD, and Q3 for the cheese
substitute data.
130 180 250 260 270 290 310 340
↑ ↑ ↑
Q1 MD Q3
 Exploratory Data Analysis

Step 3 Draw the boxplots for each distribution on

the same graph.
 Exploratory Data Analysis

Step 4 Compare the plots. It is quite apparent that

the distribution for the cheese substitute data has a
higher median than the median for the distribution
for the real cheese data. The variation or spread for
the distribution of the real cheese data is larger
than the variation for the distribution of the cheese
substitute data.
 Exploratory Data Analysis
The correspondence between the traditional and
the exploratory data analysis approach.
 Exploratory Data Analysis
Total summary
• Some basic ways to summarize data include
measures of central tendency, measure of
variation or dispersion, and measures of
position
• The three most commonly used measures of
central tendency are the mean, median, and
mod. The midrange is also used to represent an
averange.
 Exploratory Data Analysis
Total summary (cont’d)
• The three most commonly used measures of
variation are the range, variance and standard
deviation.
• The three most commonly used measures of
position are percentiles, quartiles, and deciles.
• Data values are distributed according to
Chebyshev’s theorem and in special cases, the
empirical rule
 Exploratory Data Analysis
Total summary (cont’d)
• The coefficient of variation is used to describe the
standard deviation in relationship to the mean.
• These methods are commonly called traditional
statistics.
• Other methods, such as boxplot and five- number
summary, are part of exploratory data analysis;
they are used to examine data to see what they
reveal
 Exploratory Data Analysis
Conclusions
• By combining all of these techniques together,
the student is now able to collect, organize,
summarize and present data