DATA MANAGEMENT

DATA GATHERING AND ORGANIZING DATA

● The foundation of a sound decision is a good and reliable data

gathering procedure The credibility of the output relies much on
how data is gathered and managed. Good data produces good
result.
o Data collection is the process of gathering and measuring
information about variables on study in an established
systematic procedure, which then enable to answer
relevant questions at hand and evaluate outcomes.
 Four Types of Data
There are four types of data collected nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio.
1. Nominal is the easiest to understand among the type of data. It is
sometimes referred to as classificatory scale. This scale is used for
classifying and labeling variables without quantitative value. In this scale,
one can only be part to one of the classifications or label. In nominal
scale, one could simply call it as "labels," "classification."
Example:
a. What is your eye color?
b. Where do you live?
C. What is your gender?
 Four Types of Data
2. Ordinal: In this scale, there is no standard difference of measurement.
It possesses the characteristics of the nominal scale, where it classifies
data however, the classification has ranks. Data is shown in order of
magnitude. Ordinal scale can easily be remembered because it sounds
like order which matters in ordinal scale. In this scale, the value between
intervals don't have meaning.
Example:
a. How satisfied are you with our service?
b. What are the ranks of the ladies in a beauty pageant?
c. What are the honor ranks of students?
 Four Types of Data
3. Interval: This scale possesses the characteristics of the nominal and
ordinal scale where data are classified and ranked. However, if in ordinal
scale values between intervals were not interpreted in interval scale, the
distance between attributes does have meaning Interval scale is a
classification that describes the nature of information within the values
assigned to variables. One problem with interval scale, it doesn't have a
"true zero”.
Example
When measured temperature is (in Fahrenheit), the distance from 30-40
is same as distance from 70-80
 Four Types of Data
4. Ratio: This scale possesses the characteristics of nominal, ordinal, and
interval scale. However, if in interval scale there is no true zero value, in
ratio scale, zero is absolute. This is the point where the quality being
measured does not exist.
Example:
1. How much income do you earn in a week?
2. How many siblings are there in your family?
3. How old are you?
 The table below shows the generation of the four scales of measurement

Information Nominal Ordinal Interval Ratio

The order of values is known  .  .  .
Can quantify the difference between each value  .  .
Can add and subtract values  .  .
Can multiply and divide values  .
Has "true zero"  .
 Two Types of Data Collection Methods
Different types of data can be gathered in different ways. However, for
this book, two major methods may be classified.
1. Qualitative Data Collection Method. This method uses random
sampling and structured data collection instrument. It produces results
that are easy to manipulate for interpretation. This uses individual
interviews, focus groups, and observations.
a. Individual interviews
b. Focus groups
C. Observations
 Two Types of Data Collection Methods
Different types of data can be gathered in different ways. However, for
this book, two major methods may be classified.
2. Quantitative Data Collection Method. This is collected through direct
interaction on with individuals on a one to one basis or direct interaction
with individual in a group setting that makes it time consuming and
expensive. Because it is time consuming and expensive, data is usually
collected from a smaller sample.
 Organizing Data
Gathered data remain meaningless unless organized. It is in the
organization that the values in the data set get meaning. To organize data
is to present them in table or graphical form.

1. Frequency Distribution Table. This is an excellent device for making

larger collections of data much more manageable. The frequency
distribution table has two parts-the frequency table and the extended
frequency table. A frequency table lists categories of scores along with
their corresponding frequencies.
 Organizing Data
1. Frequency Distribution Table. The frequency for a category or class is
the number of original scores that fall into that class. The extended
frequency table consists of columns that can generate various graphs or
charts. It is a prerequisite for creating graphs and charts used in statistics.
It consists of:
a. class intervals (lower and upper
b. marks, cumulative relative frequency.
c. frequency,
d. cumulative frequency, limits),
e. relative frequency,
 Organizing Data
1. Frequency Distribution Table. The frequency for a category or class is
the number of original scores that fall into that class. The extended
frequency table consists of columns that can generate various graphs or
charts. It is a prerequisite for creating graphs and charts used in statistics.
It consists of:
a. class intervals (lower and upper
b. marks, cumulative relative frequency.
c. frequency,
d. cumulative frequency, limits),
e. relative frequency,
 Organizing Data
Guidelines for frequency tables:
1. Class intervals should not overlap. Classes are mutually exclusive.
2. Classes should continue throughout the distribution with NO gaps.
Include all classes.
3. All classes should have the same width.
4. Class widths should be "convenient" numbers.
5. Use 5-20 classes.
6. Make lower or upper limits multiples of the width.
 Example:
The following is Ms. Cathy’s exam scores. Make a frequency distribution
table.
97 90 86 83 84 78 73 73 69
65 98 90 88 83 81 79 78 72
69 60 93 98 85 82 80 78 77
71 68 59 91 89 84 82 80 77
75 70 62 55 91 89 84 82 78
77 72 70 63 54 65 89 90 81
 Example:
Solution:
Step 1: Arrange the data from highest to lowest
54 55 59 60 62 63 65 65 68
69 69 70 70 71 72 72 73 75
77 77 77 77 78 78 78 78 79
80 80 81 81 82 82 82 83 83
84 84 84 85 86 88 89 89 89
90 90 90 91 91 93 97 98 98
 Example:
Step 2: Solve for range (R)
R = highest score - lowest score
R = 98- 54
= 44
Step 3: Prepare the table
Step 3.1: Solve for the number of classes.
Compute using the formula: k = 1+3.322 log n
k =1+3.322 log 54
k= 6.76
 Example:
Step 3.2: Solve for the class width.

Compute using the formula: c=

Step 3.3: Fill in the LL of the Interval column Table 2.2 by starting from the
lowest score adding the class width. The UL is the step lower the next
class. There should be no overlapping of classes.
 Example:
Step 3.4: Tally all the scores and write the frequency in the frequency
column. Be careful in tallying since this is what you are going to use for the
rest of the solution.
Step 3.5: For <cf, start from the lowest group frequency then add the
frequency of each class for the succeeding classes.
Step 3.6: For >cf, start from the highest group frequency then add the
frequency of each class for the succeeding classes.
Step 3.7: For rf, it is the fdivided by n. n is the total number of scores
Table 2.2
 Table 2.2
Interval Class Tally Frequency Less than Greater Relative
Boundaries Greater than than Frequency
Relative Cumulative
Frequency Frequency

LL – UL LB-UB F <cf >cf rf

54-61 53.5 -61.5 IIII 4 4 54 7.4%

62-69 61.5-69.5 IIIII-II 7 11 50 13%

70-77 69.5-77.5 IIIII-IIIII-I 11 22 43 20.4%

78-85 77.5-85.5 IIIII-IIIII-IIIII-III 18 40 32 33.3%

86-93 85.5-93.5 IIIII-IIIII-I 11 51 14 20.4%

94-101 93.5-101.5 III 3 54 3 5.5%

n = 54
 Organizing Data
2. Make Charts or Graphs. Once the data are gathered and organized in a
frequency distribution, the next step is to come up with a comprehensive
presentation that is easier to understand. One of them is through graphs.
Graphs are a pictorial representation of the data set. There are many types
of graphs, some of them are as follows:
a. Histogram looks like a bar graph. Its groups are made up of class
intervals of continuous data. The graph has no gaps; it is helpful when the
distribution is interval or ratio. Histograms also illustrate central tendency,
shape, and how the data are spread out or dispersed. It may be
symmetrical, uniform, skewed, and bi-modal.
 Organizing Data: Make a chart; Histogram
2. Make Charts or Graphs. Once the data are gathered and organized in a
frequency distribution, the next step is to come up with a comprehensive
presentation that is easier to understand. One of them is through graphs.
Graphs are a pictorial representation of the data set. There are many types
of graphs, some of them are as follows:
a. Histogram looks like a bar graph. Its groups are made up of class
intervals of continuous data. The graph has no gaps; it is helpful when the
distribution is interval or ratio. Histograms also illustrate central tendency,
shape, and how the data are spread out or dispersed. It may be
symmetrical, uniform, skewed, and bi-modal.
 Organizing Data: Make a chart; Histogram
A histogram is made up of
a. A title that identifies the population of concern and the type of
information presented.
b. A vertical scale identifies the frequencies in the various class
values for classes
c. A horizontal scale identifies the variable. It also shows values for
class boundaries, class limits, or class marks that may be labeled
along the axis.
 Organizing Data: Make a chart; Histogram: example
Consider the data set of Cathy's Exam
Scores. Take a look at its frequency
distribution table and create a histogram.
Solution:
Step 1: Scale both the horizontal and the vertical
axis.
Step 2: Identify the class boundaries of each interval.
Step 3: Plot the frequency of each interval and form
bars.