Week 8

Forensic Toxicology
1.Recognize what is toxicology, poison
and poison evidence
2.Discuss the classification of poison
3.Distinguish the background information
useful to Laboratory Examiner
Conduct chemico-toxicological examination of human internal organs,
gastric contents, blood, water and food samples for the presence of
chemical poisons.
FORENSIC TOXICOLOGY
Toxicology (toxic- poison, and ology-science) may be defined as the branch of science
which treats poisons, their origin, physical and chemical properties, physiological action,
treatment of their noxious effect, and methods of detection.
POISON - a substance which, when introduced into the body and is absorbed
through the blood stream, and acting chemically, is capable of producing noxious effect
or destroy life.
CLASSIFICATION OF POISONS:
A. According to kingdom
1. Animal
2. Vegetable
3. Mineral-
• B. According to chemical properties
Inorganic poisons
• Volatile and non-volatile
• Mineral acid
• Mineral alkali
 Organic poisons
• Volatile –
• Alkaloids – (are nitrogenous organic basic compound with bitter
taste containing usually oxygen that occurs especially in seed
plants)
• Animal poisons
• Bacterial
• Organic acid
• Glucosides
• C . According to physiological action
• Corrosives – highly irritant poisons that cause local
destruction of tissues and characterized by nausea,
vomiting, great local distress. Example: Strong acids
and alkali
• Irritants – one that produces irritation or
inflammation of the mucus membrane and
characterized by vomiting, pain in the abdomen and
purging. Ex. Arsenic
• Neurotics –one that act chiefly on the nervous system
producing delirium, convulsion and respiration as the
outstanding symptoms. Ex. Alcohol, opium, carbon
monoxides and strychnine
• Narcotics – one that produce stupor, complete
insensibility, or loss of feeling Ex. Opium, Demerol,
cocaine
• Tetanics –substances that act chiefly upon the spinal
column producing such spasmodic and continuous
contraction of muscles as a result of stiffness or
immobility of the parts to which they are attached. Ex.
Nux vomica
• Depressant or Sedatives –agents that retard or depress
the physiological action of an organ. Ex. Cocaine, Nicotine
• Asthenics or Exhaustive –agents that produce exhaustion,
marked loss of vital or muscular power. Ex. Hydrocyanic
acid
D. According to pharmacological action
• Substance characterized by local action.
Example: Volatile oils, skin irritants, purgatives
• Substances characterized chiefly by their action
after absorption.
Example: Alkaloids, glycosides
• Heavy metals and metalloids
Example: Phosphorous, arsenic, mercury
• E. According to methods of isolation
• Volatile poisons and those isolated by distillation with
or without current of steam.
Example: Alcohol, phenol, chloroform
• Non-volatile poisons- those that are isolated by
extraction with organic solvents.
Example: Alkaloids, synthetics, and organic acids
• Metallic poisons – those that are isolated by refluxion.
Example: Arsenic, mercury
• Substances for which special methods of isolation are
required.
Example: Acids and alkali and salts of alkali metals are
extracted with water, oxalic acid, and those requiring
dialysis.
Food Poisoning
 Symptoms of poisoning appeared soon
after a drink or meal taken
 The investigator should thoroughly see that
all liquids, foods and medicines on the
premises are preserved.
 These can be found at the medicine-
cabinet, pantry, refrigerator, and even the
reuse container.
Two Types of Poisoning
I- Medical Point of View
a. Acute Poisoning .
b. Sub-acute poisoning
c. Chronic poisoning
II –From Legal Point of View
1.Accidental Poisoning – not knowing that the
substance is a poison
2. Suicidal poisoning- taken voluntarily
3. Homicidal poisoning – willful intent to cause
death to the victim
4. undetermined – history is hazy
ACTION OF POISON
1. Local
2. Remote
3. Combined
• CONDITIONS MODIFYING THE ACTION OF POISONS
1.Those attributed to the individual
• a. Age and sex
• b. Health
• c. Habit – the repeated taking of small dose of drug
• d. Idiosyncrasy – a term applied to individuals who
exhibit unusual reactions to certain substances.
• e. Diseases
• f. Food
• g. Sleep
• h. Exhaustion
• 2. Those attributed to the poison itself
• a. Physical state or form of the poison
• b. Dilution
• c. Solubility of the poisons
• d. Mode of administration
• e. Chemical combination
• f. Mechanical combination
• g. Dose – is the quantity of poison to be
administered at one time.
POSOLOGY – a branch of science that treats of the form and
quantity of medicine to be administered within a certain
period.
 KIND OF DOSE
 1.Safe dose – one that does not cause harmful effect.
2.Toxic or poisonous dose - one that is harmful or both
healthy and sick.
3. Lethal dose – one that kills.
4.Minimum dose – is the smallest amount that will produce
the therapeutic effect without causing harm.
5.Maximum dose – is the largest that will cause no harm but
at the same time produce desired therapeutic effect.
   
• ENTRANCE OF POISON
• Poison May Enter the Body Through
1. Mouth and are absorbed into the circulation after
passing the stomach and intestinal wall.
2.Nose and enter the blood from the upper
respiratory passages or lungs.
3.Eyes
4.Rectum, vagina, urethra, bladder and ureter
by injection.
5. Hypodermic injection.
6.Intravenous injection
ELIMINATION OF POISON
 Poisons may be eliminated by:
 1.Emesis 5. Milk
2.Respiration 6. Saliva
3.Feces 7. Sweat
4.Urine 8. Tears
 
• DIAGNOSIS OF POISONING FROM DISEASE
•  1. Symptoms of Poisoning comes suddenly upon a
person who previously has been in good health, while
disease is usually proceeded by a number of hours,
days or even weeks of local or general disposition.
• 2. In case of poisoning, the symptoms commonly make
their appearances after taking food or medicine.
• 3. If several persons take the same food and drinks,
they should all show similar symptoms.
• 4. Diseases are generally much slower in their progress
and are preceded by circumstances as exposure,
recognized symptoms and general or local indisposition
of longer duration.
• SYMPTOMS CAUSED BY POISONING AND DISEASE
• 1. Vomiting (frequently associated with purging and abdominal pain)
• Poisons: arsenic, antimony, corrosive acid and alkali, barium, cantharides,
digitalis, copper, iodine, mercury, phosphorous, phenol and wood alcohol.
• Diseases: gastritis, gastro-enteritis, cholera, acidosis, early stage of pregnancy,
brain tumor
• 2. Convulsion
• Poisons: cyanide and strychnine
• Diseases: tetanus, epilepsy, and uremia
• 3. Coma
• Poisons: opium and most of its derivatives, chloral hydrate, paraldehyde, CO2,
chloroform, atropine, various alcohols and phenols.
• Diseases: uremia, acidosis, cerebral thrombosis, brain injury, epilepsy and
other brain diseases.
4. Dilation of pupils
Poisons: belladonna, cocaine and nicotine

Diseases: certain nervous diseases causing optic anthropy

Contraction of pupils
Poisons: opium and its derivatives, physostigmine and its derivatives
Diseases: certain nervous diseases
6. General and partial paralysis
Poisons: cyanides, Co, CO2 and botulism
Diseases: brain tumor and meningitis
7. Slow respiration
Poisons: opium and its derivatives
Diseases: uremia, compression of the brain as from hemorrhage
8. Rapid respiration
Poisons: atropine group, cocaine and CO2
Diseases: acute respiratory disease
9. Delirium
Poisons: atropine group, cannabis and cocaine
Diseases: epilepsy, insanity, and meningitis
10. Cyanosis
Poisons: nitrobenzene, aniline, acetanilide, and opium
Diseases: disease of cardiac and respiratory system
SECOND MEETING
GENERAL TREATMENT OF POISONING
I. Removal of poison from the stomach – if the poison is taken orally the removal of
the poison is brought about by:
a. Inducing vomiting using emetics
Emetics – are substances or agents that produce vomiting
b. Use of stomach pump or stomach tube
If the poison is applied or instilled –wash
If the poison is injected – ligatures and bleeding
II. Administration of antidotes
a. Mechanical antidote – an agent that removes the poison without
changing it or coats the surface of the organ so that absorption is prevented.
Examples:
Stomach tubes or pumps; emetics; cathartics’ demulcents and
precipitants
 Classes of emetics:
1. Local emetic – produce their effects by their invitation of the terminal nerve
filaments of the pharynx, esophagus or stomach.
2. System or general emetics – produce their effects through the medium of
circulation.
Cathartics – agents that produce intestinal evacuation
Demulcents – substances that sooths and protect the part which they are applied
Precipitants – these are substances that present absorption of poisons by precipitating

them and rendering them insoluble.
b. Chemical antidote –substance that make the poison harmless by
chemically altering it.
c. Physiological antidote – sometimes called “antagonist”. An agent that acts
upon the system so as to counteract the effect of the poison. It merely masks the
symptoms produced.
 III. Elimination of poisons by excretion – poisons are eliminated through excretory
organs. Made by intravenous infusion of saline solution, dilute alkali solution or dilute
solution of glucose. The poison is generally excreted through the urine, feces, vomitus
or saliva.
 IV- Stimulation of other Symptomatic treatment
a. For excessive pain – morphine or another analgesic
b. For convulsion – chloroform
c. shock – oxygen inhalation
V- Special Treatment
If the poison is gas – immediate need is fresh air and artificial respiration
If poisoning is external (like burn on the hand by concentrated acid) – wash with
plenty of water or with alcohol, sodium bicarbonate, lime water or milk of magnesia
If alkali burn - wash with lemon or other citrus fruit
If the poison has come from a bite or injection – the poison can be checked from
spreading through the body by applying tourniquet or a restricting band tightly
above the wound. This retards the absorption of poison by the blood. The poisons
may then be removed by sucking.
 
INVESTIGATION OF FATAL CASES
In the investigation of fatal cases, it is not necessary that an investigator should be
an expert on the poisons, since a medico-legal officer and a toxicologist will assist
him in his investigation, but it is important and will be of great help to him if he
knows the following:
1. Symptoms of various kinds of poisoning;
2. The lethal dose of then poison;
3. The length of time that may elapse after the poison has been taken before
death occurs;
4. Where the poison is obtained;
5. The chemical formula of the poison;
6. Other names it is known in the market;
7. Uses of poison;
8. And the antidote for the poison.
EVIDENCE OF POISONING IN THE LIVING BODY
  The evidence of poisoning will depend upon whether
the poisoning is acute or chronic. In acute poisoning,
the symptoms appear suddenly while the individual is
in good health. The person is usually affected with a
group of symptoms of definite characteristics out of
consonance with his previous state of health.

In chronic poisoning, the onset of symptoms is

more gradual and insidious due to the small quantity
of poison that has been administered on such
occasion since the intention of the poisoner is to kill
the victim slowly in order to avert suspicion.
 
• EVIDENCE OF POISONING IN THE DEAD
•  In all cases of poisoning whether homicidal or suicidal,
fatal or not, the presence of poison must be proven and
proofs of poisoning in the dead may be obtained from:
•  1. Presence of Dye in Hair – an examination of a dead body
specially to determine the cause of death.
• 2. Evidence from the chemical analysis of the organs taken
from the body – the most important proof of poisoning is
the detection of the poison within the body. In some cases,
however, on account of the decomposition of the tissue,
the lapse of time between death and examination, and the
instability of some poisons, negative results may be
obtained even at the time of death certain poisons are
present.
 INTERPRETATION OF TOXICOLOGICAL ANALYSIS
Reasons for Negative Results of the Toxicological
Examination
1. Some poisons maybe rapidly altered in the body to a
form that is not detectable by the methods of analysis
. employed.

2. Some poisons with or without previous chemical

change maybe rapidly excreted although its toxic effect
remains and may only be detectable in the urine but not in the
body tissue or organ.
3. Sometimes symptoms of poisoning may appear, which
may be fatal following the administration of even small and
ordinarily harmless quantity of a substance as poison.
• BACKGROUND INFORMATION USEFUL TO
LABORATORY EXAMINER
1.Symptoms exhibited by the victim right after
the intake of suspected poison
2. The place/abode of the victim prior to onset of
the symptoms
3. Food taken, activity and acquaintance/s of the
victim if known prior to onset of the symptoms
• LABORATORY METHODS USED IN THE TOXICOLOGICAL
ANALYSIS

• 1. Physical test 4. Spectrographic test

• 2. Crystalline test 5. Chromatographic test

• 3. Chemical test

• LAWS REGARDING SALE AND STORAGE OF POISONS – The

laws controlling the sale and storage are found under Section 755 to
757 of the Administrative Code

• Section 755 – Provision relative to dispensing of violent poisons like

arsenic, cyanide, atropine, morphine and strychnine.

• Section 756 – Provisions relative to dispensing of less violent poisons

like aconite, belladonna, cantharides, digitalis, ergot, carbonic acid,
and chloroform.

• Section 757 – Receptacle for poisonous drugs.

• THREE STAGES IN CHLOFORM POISONING BY INHALATION
• 1. Stage of excitement
• 2. Stage of surgical anesthesia
• 3. Stage of paralysis
• COMMON VOLATILE, NON-VOLATILE AND METALLIC
POISONS
• 1. Benzene – also called Benzol. A solvent for rubber, gums,
resins and fats
• 2. Carbon Disulfide – a solvent for sulfur. Burns with bluish
flame giving carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide.
• 3. Nitrobenzene – a pale yellow, only liquid with sweet odor.
Resembles oil of bitter almond.
• 4. Acetone – used as solvent for cellulose, acetate and
nitrocellulose. Colorless liquid of characteristic fruity color.
• 7. Formalin – an embalming liquid.
• 8. Salicylic acid – found in “ap-ap” solution
• 9. Cocaine- found in coca leaf
• 10. Picrotoxin – derived from fresh berries (the fruit of picrotoxin). Locally
known as lagtang.
• 11. Ethyl alcohol or ethanol – alcohol found in wine. Also called grain
alcohol.
• 12. Ergot –develops on rye plants. A fungus that grows on kernels of rye and
other cereal grains.
• 13. Barbiturates – sleeping pills. A derivative of malonyl urea or barbituric
acid.
Examples are secobarbital, phenobarbital and amobarbital
• 14. Strychnine – an alkaloid found in dried ripe seeds of nux vomica.
• 15. Nicotine – found in leaves of tobacco plants
• 16. Morphine – found in poppy plants (Papaver Somniferum), an alkaloid
presents in opium by about 9%. A white crystal.
• 17. Physostigmine – also called serine. Found in calabar beans
• 18. Chloral hydrate – used as “knock-out drops”
• 19. Carbolic acid or phenol – obtained from coal tar
• 20. Arsenic – a rat poison. Brittle, steel gray.
• 21. Lysol – a disinfectant. A brown liquid from cresol and soap emulsion
• 22. Methyl alcohol or methanol – causes blindness. A solvent for
varnish. An anti-freeze in automobiles. Also called wood alcohol.
• 23. Chloroform – colorless liquid with a sweet taste and suffocating
odor. An anesthesia.
• 24. Carbon tetrachloride – a dry cleaning agent. Found in “pyrine” fire
extinguisher.
• 25. Formic acid – acid found in ants and spiders.
• 26. Hydrogen cyanide – found in kamoteng kahoy. Also called
hydrocyanic acid.
• 27.Acetic acid – acid found in vinegar. In pure form is called glacial
acetic acid.
• 28. Aspirin – an analgesic. Its chemical name is aceto-salicylic acid.
• 29. Smygdalin – white crystalline substance found in bitter almond.
• 30. Atropine – obtained from the plant group “SOLANACEAE”
• 31. Phosphorus – glows in the dark
• 32. Peyote – same as mescaline. Found in cactus.
• 33. Ptomaine – found in dead or decaying matter like spoiled
meat.
• 34. Isopropyl alcohol- present in rubbing alcohol
• 35.Cannabinoids – found in Marijuana and hashish
• 36. Methamphetamine hydrochloride – a stimulant. Commonly
called “shabu”. A dangerous drug.
• 37. Heroin – also called diacetylmorphine. A derivative of
morphine. A light brown powder.
• 38. Potassium cyanide – also called jeweler’s solution.
• 39. Opium – the milky exudates from the unripe capsule of the
poppy plant (Papaver Somniferum) that has been dried. Dark,
chocolate brown has characteristic coffee odor. It is found in
poppy plant. Contains the alkaloids morphine, codeine,
thebaine and papaverine.
• 40. Mescaline – crystalline alkaloidal drug that
produces hallucinogenic effects.
• 41. Cyanides – from kernels of various fruits in
the form of amygdalin.
• 42. Codeine – methyl morphine
• 43. Conine – most active poisonous alkaloid
common or spotted hemlock
• 44. Quinine – an alkaloid of cinchona bark.
• 45. Cantharide – an aphrodisiac. Prepared from the dried
body of a beetle.
• 46. Carbon monoxide – produced by the incomplete
combustion of carbon, Found in exhaust of automobile.
• 47. Bufotoxin, bufotalin,or bufotonin – poisonous
substance isolated from the skin of poisonous frog.
• 48. Scopolamine – poisonous alkaloid found in some plants
of the Nightshade family and used as “Truth Serum”
• 49. Toluene – colorless, mobile, inflammable liquid that
burns with smoky flame. Found in rugby.
• 50. Hydrogen sulfide – a poisonous substance with odor
like that of a rotten egg.
•  
 WEEK 9
• LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1.Discuss what is forensic serology and
types of physiology evidence
2. Recognize blood and the role of blood in
criminal investigation;
3.Categorize the different blood evidence.
  
Forensic Serology
A. Definition
Forensic serology is the identification of bodily
fluids, usually in the form of stains on clothing or
other crime scene evidence.
Blood
Blood has been called the circulating tissue of the human
body. It is referred to as highly complex mixture of cells,
enzymes, proteins and inorganic substances. It is the red
fluid of the blood vessels.

Role of Blood
Blood carries oxygen from the lungs to all the other
tissues in the body and in turn carries waste products
predominantly carbon dioxide back to the lungs where they
are released into the air
COMPOSITION OF BLOOD
About 55 percent of the blood is composed of a liquid known as
plasma. The rest of the blood (45%) is made of three major types of
cells: red blood cells (also known as erythrocytes), white blood
cells (leukocytes), and platelets (thrombocytes).
PLASMA
The fluid portion of blood where the cells are suspended. It is
principally composed of water ((90%), solid (10%) which is largely
protein in nature and consists of albumen, several globulins and
fibrinogen. suspended.
Serum is a straw – yellow liquid formed when clotted blood is
allowed to stand for sometimes and the blood contracts.
RED BLOOD CELLS

Red blood (ERYTHROCYTES) cells make up almost

45 percent of the blood volume. Their primary function
is to carry oxygen from the lungs to every cell in the
body. Red blood cells are composed predominantly of a
protein and iron compound, called hemoglobin, that
captures oxygen molecules as the blood moves
through the lungs, giving blood its red color.
C. BLOOD TYPE
  types of red blood cells and each person has red blood cells of just one
type.
 Blood type is determined by the occurrence or absence of substances,
known as recognition markers or antigens, on the surface of the red blood
cell.
 Type A blood has just marker A on its red blood cells while type B has only
marker B.
 If neither A nor B markers are present, the blood is type O. If both the A and
B markers are present, the blood is type AB.
 Another marker, the Rh antigen (also known as the Rh factor), is present or
absent regardless of the presence of A and B markers. If the Rh marker is
present, the blood is said to be Rh positive, and if it is absent, the blood is
Rh negative. The most common blood type is A positive—that is, blood that
has an A marker and also an Rh marker. More than 20 additional red blood
cell types have been discovered.
 Blood typing is important for many medical
reasons.
 If a person loses a lot of blood, that person
may need a blood transfusion to replace some
of the lost red blood cells.
 Everyone makes antibodies against substances
that are foreign, or not of their own body,
transfused blood must be matched so as not
to contain these substances.
D. WHITE BLOOD CELLS

 White blood cells (LEUKOCYTES) only make up about 1

percent of blood, but their small number belies their
immense importance.
 Play a vital role in the body’s immune system—the
primary defense mechanism against invading bacteria,
viruses, fungi, and parasites.
 Often accomplish this goal through direct attack, which
usually involves identifying the invading organism as
foreign, attaching to it, and then destroying it. This
process is referred to as phagocytosis.
E. PLATELETS
  AND CLOTTING

 The smallest cells in the blood are the platelets

(THROMBOCYTES), which are designed for a
single purpose—to begin the process of coagulation,
or forming a clot, whenever a blood vessel is
broken.
 As soon as an artery or vein is injured, the platelets
in the area of the injury begin to clump together and
stick to the edges of the cut.
SECOND MEETING
IMPORTANCE OF THE STUDY OF BLOOD
1. As circumstantial or corroborative evidence against or in
favor of the perpetrator.
2. As evidence in case of disputed parentage.
3. As evidence in the determination of the cause of death
and the length of time the victim survived the attack.
4. As evidence in the determination of the direction of the
victim/assailant.
5. As evidence in the determination of the origin of the flow
of blood.
6. As evidence in the determination of the approximate time
the crime was committed.
 
Blood as Evidence
   Blood either fresh or in dried state is the most
common among evidence found in serious and
violent crimes.
 It can be either in puddles, spatters, smears, or
droplets. It may appear as dried stain found in
knife, ice pick and similar items, used in the
commission of the crime. Dried blood stain can also
be found on floors (either tiled or wood), ceilings
and walls, articles of clothing or furniture, floor
carpets, auto seat upholstery, and any objects used
in the course of the crime to attempt to conceal it.
• At the scene of the crime, usually dried blood
stain are found in the body and clothing of the
victim.
• the dead body of the victim is no longer in the
area upon arrival of the SOCO members, it is a
primary objective of a team to look for the blood
evidence.
• Significantly, there are various significant and
important reasons of forensic analysis of blood.
Blood as evidence can help narrow the group of
suspects, support the identification of a
suspect and even guide the reconstruction of
a crime.
Analysis of blood as evidence in the chronological order.
1.Preliminary test
2. Confirmatory test
3. Precipitin Test
4. Blood Grouping
a. Determination of whether a man accused of fathering a child out of
wedlock could or not be its parents.
  b. Determination of whether a child born of a married woman could or
could not have been fathered by her legal spouse.

c. Determination of whether a child could or could not belong to a given

set of parents in the case of accidental interchange of infants in the
hospital.

d. Determination of whether a child who has been lost and later recovered
after a long interval could or could not belong to a given set of parents
 5. DNA Profiling- It is conducted when blood
groupings fail and when samples are insufficient
since in DNA analysis even minute sample can be
utilized (provided the sample still contains cell).
DNA laboratory test are only conducted at the main
NBI and PNP- Crime Laboratories.

 
PRELIMINARY TEST FOR BLOOD
There are four preliminary test for the presence of blood namely:
benzedine, phenolphthalein, guiaicum, and the leucomalachite tests.
 

CONFIRMATORY TEST FOR BLOOD

1. Microscopic Test
2. Microchemical Test of Microcrystalline Test
3. Spectroscopic Test
  
1.

Bloodstain Pattern Evidence

Blood is very frequently encountered at crime
scenes, particularly those of a violent nature. By
closely analyzing the bloodstain pattern left at the
crime scene, there is information to be gained that
extends beyond the various serological analyses
previously discussed. As it is deposited, blood
creates a pattern and provides a basis for study
and interpretation.
The following are possible determinations made from bloodstain
evidence analysis:
A. Course and sequence of events that occurred during the
commission of the crime.
B. Nature of force including the number of blows, the severity
of blows and the point of origin of a gunshot of a blow.
C. The position of the participant and the distance between
participants
D. Supportive or non-supportive analysis of the statements of
victim(s), suspect(s), and witnesses or of the conditions found at
a crime scene (such as the position of the victim’s body or
indications of a self-inflected gunshot wound)
E. Information to be used in the interview or interrogation of
witnesses or suspects
F. Logical determination for collection sites of blood samples
for serological examinations
Blood Stain properties
A. Physical Properties of Blood
1. Consistency
Regardless of the ambient temperature or the age, sex, or size of the
contributor, blood will behave with consistent regularity when acted upon by
gravity or other forces.
2. Viscosity
The property of the fluid that resists the force tending to cause the fluid to
flow. Blood has a relative viscosity of 3.6 – 5.4 (water is 1.0).
3. Blood drop
a. Size
The smaller the orifice that expels the drop, the smaller the drop (up to
a point). Conversely, the greater the surface are of the object on which the
drop is formed, the larger the drop (up to a point). A wet surface or a curved
will produce a larger drop. Unless acted upon by outside forces that tend to
hold the drop together.
 b. Shape-
.
The volume of a drop falls in a range depending on a variables involved,
the average volumes is 0.05 ml because of the cohesive forces of fluid
dynamics, a drop of blood will fall as a sphere, not as a “teardrop” shape
c. Volume
The larger the drop, the greater the volume. The greater the distance
fallen, and the higher the velocity, the larger the drop.
4. Clotting time
Clotting takes three to five minutes to begin. Clotting is slowed on irregular
surfaces and at cooler temperatures.
  5. Drying time
Subject to many variables such as temperature, humidity air movement, volume
of blood, size of the stain, and surface that it is deposited on drying time for blood can
 
range from approximately 40 minutes to 10 hours.
 Categories of blood stains
1. Falling/Dripping
Blood falls or drips when overcome by the influence of gravity. These are
characterized by larger, circular stains.
2. Projected
Blood is being propelled or expelled by a force greater than gravity, such as:
a. Blood being flung off of a bloody object in a tangential arch, usually on the
backswing (cast-off blood) before it is released.
 b. Blood being pumped through a breached artery by the action of the heart
f
(arterial bleeding).
3. Contact
a. Swipe
A bloody object coming in contact with a non-bloody object.
b. Wipe
An object disturbing existing blood.
c. Detail
Characteristic can range from a rough outline of the object to fine detail
(such as a bloody visible fingerprint) and/or “feathering” which are fine
lines that indicate the direction of motion of the depositing contact.
4. Impact
Blood being compressed by some forces causing it to be
broken into smaller droplets. These stains are characterized by
various sizes and random distribution.
a. Low velocity impact spatter
Spatter size 5 mm or more in diameter. This classification
usually is caused by blood that is splashed onto a surface or
blood that is subjected to a minor impact like stepping into blood
or an object falling into blood.
 b. Medium velocity impact spatter
  Spatter size is usually in the 1 to 4 mm range.
 
Blood  is usually subjected to a force between 5 –25
feet/second. Medium velocity spatter is commonly associated
with blunt force trauma.
c. High velocity impact spatter
Spatter is 1mm or less. Blood is subjected to a
force of 100 feet/second or greater. Many of the individual
spatter are 0.01 mm or smaller and are created by a mist-
  like dispersion. Often associated with gunshots or
explosions. This atomized mist, because of the low mass of
the droplets, will usually only travel a short distance, less
than a meter, before being overcome by gravitational
forces. The dispersion is often cone-shaped with the mist
falling off quickly and the larger droplets traveling up to 6
feet away.
d. Impact Angle Determination – Shape of Spatter
a. If blood strikes a surface perpendicular to its line of flight, a circular
stains results.
b. If blood strikes a surfaces at an angle to its line of flight, an elongated
stain will result.
c. The degree of elongation is proportional to the angle of impact,
impact angle = arc sine (width/length). This is useful in determining a
three dimensional point of origin
d. Directionality determination – the narrow ends of elongated spatter
point in the direction of travel.
 Documentation
The thorough documentation of bloodstain patterns that are present at
crime scenes is imperative to allow for the subsequent examination and
interpretation of the depositing mechanism of those stains. A comprehensive
series of photographs must be taken that not only provides details of the size
and shape of individuals stains, but also enables the examiner to reconstruct
the positional relationship of various stained and unstained objects and
surfaces to one another.
A. Notes/Sketches
A crime scene sketch, drawn to scale, should include
measurements and placement of bloodstains. Both
Horizontal and vertical measurements should be included.
Include a log with a description of the category of bloodstain
patterns.
B. Photographs of the Crime Scene
1. Long range views
These Photographs show the overall relationship of rooms, walls,
objects, etc. as they relate to bloodstain patterns. Photographs
should first be taken without the addition of any measuring devices
or identifiers, and then with them in place. Measuring devices
should be placed both horizontally and vertically so that they do not
obstruct essential portions of the stain. The camera should be
positioned perpendicular to the bloodstained surface whenever
possible.
2. Medium range views
These photographs should be taken with the camera
affixed to a tripod that is positioned with the film plane
perpendicular to the stained surface. Measuring devices
and identifiers will establish the location of the stain and
the location of individual elements of that stain that will
be captured in closed-ups. These photographs should
provide and overall view of the stain or a series of stains
that appear to be of common origin. The relationship
between separate stained areas may also be established
with these views.
The overall parameters of the bloodstain pattern are best
documented with medium range views. The height of stains is to be
illustrated by placing a measuring device in a vertical position at the
stain.
Close-up views
The size and shape of individual elements of the bloodstain (spatters,
drops, swipes, wipes, etc.) is captured in close-up photographs. 4.
Movable objects
Objects that may contain valuable blood spatter evidence
include clothing and shoes of victims and suspects, jewelry,
eyeglasses, belts, watches, etc. Photographs should include overalls
of the general appearance of these objects and close-ups of details of
the bloodstain groups.