Admas University

Mekanisa campus
Department of computer sciences

Course title: Data Communication and Computer Networks

By: Shewakena G.
 Chapter 1
Data Communication and Computer Networking Basics
1.1 Definition of Data Communication
1.2. Basics of Data Communication
 Data transmission is the process of conveying data
between two points by way of a communication medium.
A wide variety of media are available :
 Bounded media confine the data to specific physical pathways.
 Common examples of bounded media are wire and optical fiber cables.
 unbounded media transmit the data-carrying signal through space,
independent of a cable.
 Broadcast radio and television are examples of unbounded media
Con…
NOTE : Electrical cable types are frequently referred to as
“copper"  because that metal is the most frequently used
conductor. You may hear fiber optic cables called simply
"fiber" or "glass".
 Three Basic elements of Data communication:
 Sender (source): Creates the message to be transmitted
 Media: Carries the message e.g. UTP, Fiber, telephone line
 Receiver (sink): Receives the message.
 The sender and receiver in data communications are
usually computer terminals, peripheral devices like
printers, plotters, disks etc
Con…
 The term communication can be defined as the process
of transferring messages between entities. Based on what
these two entities are, there are three basic types of
communication:
I. Human-to-Human
II. Computer-to-computer
III. Human-to-Computer
 In all the three cases, three basic elements can be identified.
 The source (the sender)
 The media (the channel)
 The destination (the receiver)
Con…
 Communication = source + transmitter + transmission
system + Receiver + Destination
Con…
Telecommunications:
 Telecommunications means communication at a distance.
 It refers to all types of data transmission from voice to
video.
 Telecommunications technology embraces
 radio waves travelling through the air or through space,
 electrical waves flowing along a telephone wire, and
 laser pulses travelling along optical fiber.
 Telecommunications Services:
 Telephone,cellular radio, telex, fax, voice mail,
teleconferencing, video conferencing, online digital
communication, etc
Con….
Assume conversation over a telephone line
 Source: Data generator (person who talks)
 Transmitter: transform + encode information
(telephone apparatus)
 Transmission system: system connecting source and
destination (the telephone line)
 Receiver: transform back to understandable form by
the destination (telephone apparatus)
 Destination: Data receiver (person who listens)
1.1.3 Data Representation techniques
 Information today comes in different format such as text,
number, audio and video.
 1. Text: is represented as a bit pattern, a sequences of bits
(0s or 1s).
 the number of bits in a pattern depends on the number of
symbols in language. For example:
 English language uses 26 symbols uppercase (A, B, V….Z) and (a, b,
c…..z) lowercase.
 10 symbols (0,1,2,3…..9) to represent numeric character.
 Symbols (.., ?, !......%&) to represent sent punctuations.
 2. Number: are also represented by using bit pattern.
 A code such as ASCII is not represent number? Why?
Con…
 3. Image: are also represent by bit pattern.
 An image is divided into a matrix of pixel( picture elements),
where each pixel is not a small dot.
 4. Audio: is represented of sound.
 Audio By nature different form text, number or image.
 Even when we use a microphone to change voice or music to
an electronic signal.
 5. Video: can produced either as a continuous entity (e.g
by a TV camera, or it ca be a combination of image, each
a discrete entity, arranged to convey the idea of motion).
1.1.4 Digital Data Transmission formats
Data Encoding
 Digital vs. Analog signal
 In digital data communication (e.g. computer networks), source
data is digital (i.e. made up of 0’s and 1’s)
 For the digital data to be transmitted in any transmission
system, it should be represented with an analog signal
 Depending on the type of transmission system, data could
be represented in many forms.
 Discrete signals: Signal levels restricted to predetermined
values. E.g. 0 & 5V (TTL logic)
 Analog signals: Signal levels can attain any value in the
allowed range (voice signal)
Digital Modulation
 Different types of representing data in discrete signals
(digital modulation)
 Simple(None Return to Zero, NRZ): A high (or low) voltage
level is used to represent one logic level while a low (or high)
voltage level is used to represent the other
 Return to Zero (RZ): One logic level is represented by a
voltage level going high and then returning to zero while
another is represented by a zero voltage  
 Manchester encoding: A self-clocking data encoding
technique. If a '0' is sent, a low to high transition occurs
halfway through the bit period; conversely if a '1' is sent, a high
to low transition occurs. There is at least one signal transition in
every bit.
Data representation in discrete signals
Analog Modulation
 Analog carrier could also be made to vary according to the
data to be transmitted
 Frequency modulation: the frequency of the carrier varies
according to the magnitude of the data
 Amplitude Modulation: the amplitude of the carrier varies
according to the magnitude of the data
Data representation in analog signals
1.1.5 Transmission Impairments
 There are 3 main causes of impairments:
 1. Attenuation: is loss of energy that is weak of
signal.
 2. Distortion: changing content of message
 3. Noise: affecting the message due to unwanted
sound
 Terminal noise
 Intermediation noise
 Cross talk
1.1.6 Modes of Data transmission
 A message should first be encoded in such a way that
it can be transmitted through a channel (medium), it is
then transmitted, and finally, it is decoded into a form
that can be understood by the destination at the other
end.
 This holds true for voice communication, or data
communication

Sen Enco Transm Deco Destin

ission ding ation
der ding
Con…
 Data communication involves transporting data from one point to
another. T
 his is an instance of computer-to-computer communication, i.e.,
both the source and the destination are computer devices, and the
transmission media may be telephone lines, satellite links,
microwave links, etc.
 Types of Transmission mode:
1. Simplex :
 Communication can take place in only one direction like one-way
traffic.
 Devices connected to such a circuit are either a send-only or a
receive only device e.g a line printer.
 This is very inadequate because the sender needs an
acknowledgement, control or error signal.
Simplex con…
The most basic form of data or information
transmission is called simplex.
This means that data is sent in one direction only,
from sender to receiver.
Examples of simplex transmission are radio and
television.
Con…
2. Half duplex mode
 In Half-duplex mode, the communication can take place
in both directions, but only in one direction at a time.
 In this mode, data is sent and received alternatively.
 In half-duplex mode, at a time only one end transmits data
while other end receives. In addition, it is possible to
perform error detection and request the sender to re-
transmit information.
Con…
3. Full duplex mode
 In Full-duplex mode, the communication can take place in
both directions simultaneously, i.e. at the same time on the
same channel.
 It is the fastest directional mode of communication.
 Example of this mode is conversation of the persons
through telephone.
 Methods of Data Transmission
 Two typical methods are employed to ensure data transfer.
Circuit Switching:
 There is a dedicated communication path between two stations, traversing a sequence
of links.
 A channel is dedicated to the connection.
 Dedicated communications path established for the duration of the conversation
 Data are transmitted along the dedicated path.
 At each node, incoming data are switched to the appropriated outgoing channel without delay.
o Common example: telephone network.
 Establishing Switched network consists of 3 phases:
1) Circuit establishment
2) Data transfer
3) Circuit disconnect
Characteristics
 Inefficient:
 Guaranteed connection
 No delay, however, busy when connected.
Con…
Packet switching:
 Messages are first divided into smaller pieces called packets.
 Each packet includes source and destination address information
 A packet contains: information about source and target address,
length of data, packet sequence number, flags to indicate
beginning and end, etc.
 Data sent out of sequence
 Packets passed from node to node between source and destination
 One packet doesn’t necessarily follow the path followed by
another packet.
 Data is assembled at the destination
Con…
 Data transmission in computers is usually made as a unit of bits
(byte).
Transmission can be Parallel or Serial
Parallel Transmission:
 A group of bits are transmitted simultaneously in parallel
transmission over a bundled of lines in a cable.
 Parallel transmissions are normally used where the distance between
the two devices are short.
Problems are:
o Using multiple lines is expensive.
o Thicker wires are required to reduce signal degradation.
o Wireless resistance may cause the bits drift and arrive at slightly different
times.
Con…
Serial transmission:
 uses just one line, transmits all the bits along it one after another.
 It is cheaper and more reliable than parallel transmission over long distances.
 In serial transmission mode the start and stop positions of the data should be
determined.
Two approaches for this
 Asynchronous Transmission: A type of data transmission in which each data
transmitted is framed by a ‘start’ and ‘stop’ bit, where ‘start’ and ‘stop’ bits are
different from ‘normal’ bits.
 On a ‘quiet’ line, where the voltage is normal (usually 0V), the first bit is always
considered as a ‘start’ bit, and after a specified number of bits (usually 8bits=byte)
the receiver expects a stop bit (if none is detected then it means error has occurred)
Con…
Synchronous Transmission:
 A method of data transfer in which data is blocked together for transmission
as a group.
 The receiver ‘knows’ when data is coming, i.e. they use synchronized clock
signals
 To use a single channel for sending more than one data, we use Multiplexing.
 Multiplexing increases the number of users for single channel
 Once the data from multiple senders is multiplexed into one, it should be
demultiplexed to retrieve individual messages from senders
 1.2 Computer Network
 A computer network is a system in which a number of
independent computers are linked together to share data
and peripherals, such as files and printers.
 In the modern world, computer networks have become
almost indispensable.
 All major businesses, and governmental and educational
institutions make use of computer networks to such an
extent that it is now difficult to imagine a world without
them.
Con…
 Networking - the interconnection of workstations,
peripherals, terminals and other devices.
Benefits of Network Computing
 Networks increase efficiency and reduce costs.
 Computer networks achieve these goals in four
primary ways:
I. Sharing Information (Or Data)
II. Sharing Hardware (Peripheral Devices)
III. Sharing Programs/Software
IV. Centralizing Administration And Support
Disadvantages (along with the good
comes the bad) of computer network
Security Issues
 Making important and sensitive information available to every user
of the network is not normally desirable.
For example, information about employees’ salaries should not be
freely available for anybody to look at. Data security is therefore
an important concern in a networked environment.
Virus Transmission
 The danger of computer viruses entering the network is greatly
increased.
A virus can infect any of the computers on the network, and can
quickly spread throughout the network causing significant damage.
Privacy issues
 Some times people may fall under control of others
Network Components
 The components required to operate a network can be divided into two
major categories.
 Hardware
 Software
 The hardware components of a network consist of the following five items
 Server
 Workstation
 Cabling
 Network Interface Cards (NIC)
 A concentrator, or wiring center (optional)
 The software necessary to operate a network consists of three/four items
 Network operating system
 The operating system of the workstation
 Server software
 Client software
 Con…
Hard ware
 The Server
 The server functions as the central repository resources/services the network provides.
 Usually the server is also responsible for controlling which users on which computers in the
network are granted access to a service.
 Workstations
 A place where the services of the server are used
 Usually not as good as the server in one way or another
 Cabling
 This is what connects the file server and workstations. Another phrase for cabling is
transmission media.
 There are various types of transmission media, including coaxial cable, twisted-pair cable (both
shielded and unshielded), and fiber-optic.
 Network interface card (NIC)
 The NIC is located in every workstation on the LAN as well as in the server.
 It is a board that plugs into one of the expansion slots on the motherboard of a workstation and
the server, thereby providing a connector on the back to hook to some sort of transmission
media (including wireless media).
 Acts as a “transmitter” and “receiver” - transceiver
 Con…
Software
 The Network Operating System
 The network operating system is the software that resides on the server. The network operating
system, or NOS, controls virtually all the activity on the network.
 The NOS manages access to the resource on the server and handles security of the resource on
the server.
 It provides true multi-user capabilities and is probably the most important part of the network.

 The workstation operating system

 The operating system software for each workstation is loaded at the workstation.
 This software is essential for the workstation to operate, even if that workstation is not part of a
network
 The server software
 Usually loaded on the server
 Provides an interface through the service is given to clients
 Most popular ones are web server, mail server, print server, file server, database server, etc.
 The client software
 Used to access the service given by the server software on the server
 Capable of interfacing with server software
 E.g. web browsers, e-mail clients etc
 Types of Computer Network
 Based on the area coverage of the network (Geographical
Area), computer networks can be divides into two:
1. LAN
2. MAN
3. WAN
4. PAN
 Local area networks:
 are used to interconnect distributed communities of computers
located within a single building or localized group of buildings.
 Example: network in your class Room, Home, Office etc..
 MAN
 Is a larger network that usually spans several buildings in
the same city or town.
 Example: networks among Addis Ababa sub city
administrations (Kifle Ketemas)

WAN
Is types of network which covers large
geographical area.
WAN is boundless.
It also call Internet(the mother of network).
Example : network among news agency
offices in different region of Ethiopia.
PAN
 Wireless technologies have introduced a new term Wireless Personal Area Networks
(WPAN).
 WPAN refers to the technologies involved in connecting devices in very close
proximity to exchange data or resources.
 An example of this can be seen through connecting a laptop with a PDA to synchronize an
address book.
 Because of their small size and the nature of the data exchange, WPAN devices lend
themselves well to ad hoc networking.
 Ad hoc networks are those that have devices connect directly to each other and not
through a wireless access point.
 Ad hoc wireless networks are discussed later in this chapter.
 Because of the close proximity of WPAN networking, short-range wireless technologies are
typically used.
 This includes Bluetooth and Infrared.
 The key WPAN technology supported in Windows XP Professional, for example, is
Infrared Data Association (IrDA).
 In addition, the IEEE wireless standards, including 802.11b/g, can be used to create
a WPAN.
Computer network Architecture Types
 1. Peer-to-peer (P2P)
 In a peer-to-peer network, there are no dedicated servers, and
there is no hierarchy among the computers.
 All the computers are equal and therefore are known as peers.
 Each computer functions as both a client and a server, and
there is no administrator responsible for the entire network.
 The user at each computer determines what data on that
computer is shared on the network.
 Both remote processes are executing at same level and they
exchange data using some shared resource.
 Peer to peer network are also called Workgroup
Where a Peer-to-Peer Network Is Appropriate
 In a peer-to-peer network, there are no dedicated servers,
and there is no hierarchy among the computers.
 All the computers are equal and therefore are known as
peers.
 Each computer functions as both a client and a server, and
there is no administrator responsible for the entire
network.
 The user at each computer determines what data on that
computer is shared on the network.
 Peer to peer network are also called Workgroup
 Advantages and Disadvantages of peer to peer network

 Easy to install and configure

 The cost of installation and operation is less
 A full time network administrator is not required

Disadvantages of peer to peer network

 Shared resources can be accessed by everyone
 Backup has to be performed on each computer
separately
 No centralized security
Server Based network (client/server network)
 In an environment with more than 10 users.
 a peer-to-peer network with computers acting as both servers and clients.
 will probably not be adequate.
 Therefore, most networks have dedicated servers.
 A dedicated server is one that functions only as a server and is not
used as a client or workstation.
 Servers are described as "dedicated" because they are not themselves
clients, and because they are optimized to service requests from
network clients quickly and to ensure the security of files and
directories.
 One remote process acts as a Client and requests some resource from
another application process acting as Server.
 Server based network is also known as Domain.
Communication in Client-server Model
Two processes in client-server model can interact in various ways:
 Sockets
 Remote Procedure Calls (RPC)

Sockets process:
In this paradigm, the process acting as Server opens a socket using a well-
known (or known by client) port and waits until some client request comes.
The second process acting as a Client also opens a socket; but instead of
waiting for an incoming request, the client processes ‘requests first’.

When the request is reached to

server, it is served. It can either be
an information sharing or resource
request.
 Communication in Client-server Model
Remote Procedure Calls (RPC) process:
This is a mechanism where one process interacts with another by
means of procedure calls.
One process (client) calls the procedure lying on remote host.
The process on remote host is said to be Server.
Both processes are allocated stubs.
This communication happens in the following way:
 The client process calls the client stub. It passes all the
parameters pertaining to program local to it.
 All parameters are then packed (marshalled) and a system call
is made to send them to other side of the network.
 Kernel sends the data over the network and the other end
receives it.
 The remote host passes data to the server stub where it is
unmarshalled.
 The parameters are passed to the procedure and the procedure
is then executed.
 The result is sent back to the client in the same manner.
Advantages of server based network
 Centralized resources
 Easier to backup files
 Easier to find files
 Efficient
 Security
 One machine can secure entrire network
 One central login
 Scalability

Disadvantage of client server

If the server goes down, it takes part or the whole network with it
It is more expensive to install
Needs to be maintained by staff with high IT skills
 Network Components
(Internetworking Devices)
 Networks are connected with each other using internetworking devices.
 Such devices are employed to connect and interconnect computers as
well as to extend computer networks.
 Repeaters:
 Repeats (extends or boosts) messages (in signal form) and forwards to the
immediate medium.
  Hardware that works at physical level
 Operates in two directions simultaneously
 Hubs:
 Are like repeaters (When they are active hubs)
 Are used in star topology networks
 Transmits message by opening and closing the holes on which computer cable
is connected
 Have many ports
 1st layer device
Con…
 Switch:
 Electronic device, similar to hub physically and bridge logically
 Operates on packets
 Understands addresses (MAC addresses)
 Only forward when necessary
 Allow connection at the same time
 Higher cost than hub
 2nd layer device
 Bridges:
 Hardware device that operates at data link layer level (2 nd layer)
 Little more intelligent than repeaters
 Used to partition traffic
 Filter and forward data packets from one network to another
 Can be used for LANs and WANs
Con…
 Routers:
 Interconnect multiple networks
 Route data packets
 Intelligent devices and keep a map of the nodes connected to the net
 Work at network layer (3rd layer)
 Provides some management functions
 Gateways:
 Most sophisticated of the tools
 Can be hardware or software or a combination
 Work at all the seven layers of OSI
 Are used for protocols/data conversion or encapsulation
 Brouter:
 Bridges + Routers
 Functionally used as either bridge or Router or both.
Con…
 Wireless networking
 Recently wireless networking has been increasing in popularity.
 Wireless networks can use infrared light, line-of-sight lasers, or radio waves
to transmit data between nodes without the need for physical cabling.
 They eliminate the need to install physical cabling and offer a lot of
flexibility for users using the network.
 However, they are currently more expensive and slower than cable-based
networks.
 As costs drop and performance increases, wireless networks are sure to be
increasingly popular in the future.
 There are two main types of hardware associated with wireless
communication in computing: Bluetooth and 802.11.
 Bluetooth only allows very short-range transmission
 802.11, or wireless Ethernet(WIFI)
Network Software Components
 1. Network Operating Systems
 computer cannot operate without a computer operating system, a
network of computers cannot operate without a network operating
system.
 Without a network operating system of some kind, individual computers
cannot share resources, and other users cannot make use of those
resources.
 A computer's operating system coordinates the interaction between the
computer and the programs (applications) it is running.
 It controls the allocation and use of hardware resources such as:
 Memory
 CPU time
 Disk space
 Peripheral device
Network Software Components Con…
 Multitasking A multitasking operating system, as the name
suggests, provides the means for a computer to process more than
one task at a time.
 A true multitasking operating system can run as many tasks as
there are processors (CPUs).
 There are two primary forms of multitasking:
 Pre-emptive: In pre-emptive multitasking, the operating system can take
control of the CPU whenever it wants to, without the task's cooperation.
 The operating system parcels out CPU time slices to each program.
 Non-pre-emptive (cooperative): In non-pre-emptive multitasking, the
task itself decides when to give up the CPU.
 In cooperative multitasking, each program can control the CPU for as
long as it needs it.
Network Software Components Con…
 2. Client software
 In a stand-alone system, when the user types a command that requests
the computer to perform a task, the request goes over the computer's
local bus to the computer's CPU.
 This forwarding is performed by the redirector.
 Depending on the networking software, this redirector is sometimes
referred to as the "shell" or the "requester.“
 The redirector is a small section of code in the NOS that:
 Intercepts requests in the computer
 Determines if the requests should continue in the local computer's bus or be
redirected over the network to another server
 Using the redirector, users don't need to be concerned with the actual
location of data or peripherals, or with the complexities of making a
connection.
 Network Topology
 The term topology, or more specifically, network topology, refers to the
arrangement or physical layout of computers, cables, and other components on
the network.
 A Network Topology is the arrangement with which computer systems or network devices are
connected to each other.
 "Topology" is the standard term that most network professionals use when they
refer to the network's basic design.
 Category(Types) of Topology
 Physical
 Describes the geometric arrangement of components that make up the LAN.
 describes how the physical components on a network are connected.
 Logical
 Describes the possible connections between pairs of networked end-points
that can communicate.
 describes the way network data flows through the physical components.
 Types of Physical Network Topologies
1) Point-to-Point
2) Bus Topology
3) Star Topology
4) Ring Topology
5) Mesh Topology
6) Tree Topology
7) Hybrid Topology
Point-to-Point
Point-to-point networks contains exactly two hosts such
as computer, switches, routers, or servers connected back to
back using a single piece of cable.
Often, the receiving end of one host is connected to
sending end of the other and vice versa
Point-to-Point Con…

 If the hosts are connected point-to-point logically, then may have

multiple intermediate devices.
 But the end hosts are unaware of underlying network and see each
other as if they are connected directly.
Bus Topology
 Computers are connected in a single line
 It consist of a single cable called a backbone

Sending the signal in Bus Topology
 If one computer need to send to another computer
 sent to all the computers on the network
 However, only the computer whose address matches the
address encoded in the original signal accepts the
information
 All other computers reject the data
 only one computer at a time can send data at a time ,so
 the number of computers attached to the bus will affect
network performance
Signal bounce in Bus Topology
 If one computer send a data to another computer , it
travels from one end of the cable to the other
 If the signal is allowed to continue uninterrupted, it
will keep bouncing back and forth along the cable and
prevent other computers from sending signals
Terminator
To stop the signal from bouncing, a component
called a terminator is placed at each end of the
cable to absorb free signals.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Bus Topology
 Advantages of Bus Topology
Inexpensive
Disadvantages of Bus Topology
 Cable fails the whole network fails

Star Topology
 All computers are connected to a single hub
 Signals are transmitted from the sending computer
through the hub to all computers on the network.
Advantages of of Star Topology
 If one computer - or the cable that connects it to the hub -
fails on a star network, only the failed computer will not
be able to send or receive network data.
 Easy to setup and modify
 Easy to troubleshoot
Disadvantages of Star Topology
 If hub fails then entire network will fail
 Require more cables
 May require a device to rebroadcast signals across the
network
Ring Topology
 Every computer is connected to the next computer in the ring and
each transmits what it receives from the previous computer.
 The messages flow around the ring in one direction.

Advantages
 Transmitting network is not affected by high traffic or by adding
more nodes, as only the node having token can transmitted data
Disadvantages
 Failure of one computer disturbs the whole network
Mesh Topology
 A mesh topology network offers superior redundancy and
reliability.
 In a mesh topology, each computer is connected to every
other computer by separate cabling.
 This configuration provides redundant paths throughout
the network so that if one cable fails, another will take
over the traffic.
Mesh Topology Con…
 Mesh technology comes into two types:
 Full Mesh: All hosts have a point-to-point connection to
every other host in the network.
 Thus, for every new host n(n-1)/2 connections are
required.
 It provides the most reliable network structure among all
network topologies.
 Partially Mesh: Not all hosts have point-to-point
connection to every other host.
 Hosts connect to each other in some arbitrarily fashion.
 This topology exists where we need to provide reliability
to some hosts out of all.
Advantage and Disadvantage of Mesh topology
 An advantage of a mesh topology is its back-up
capabilities by providing multiple paths
through the network.
 Disadvantage of Mesh topology  
 Because redundant paths require more cable
than is needed in other topologies, a mesh
topology can be expensive.
Tree Topology
 Also known as Hierarchical Topology, this is the most common form of
network topology in use presently.
 This topology imitates as extended Star topology and inherits
properties of Bus topology.
 This topology divides the network into multiple levels/layers of
network.
 The lowermost is access-layer where computers are attached. The
middle layer is known as distribution layer, which works as mediator
between upper layer and lower layer.
 The highest layer is known as core layer, and is central point of the
network, i.e. root of the tree from which all nodes fork.
All neighboring hosts have point-to-
point connection between them.
Every connection serves as point of
failure, failing of which divides the
network into unreachable segment.
Hybrid Topology
 It is a combination of two or more standard topologies
 Star Bus
 The star bus is a combination of the bus and star
topologies. In a star-bus topology, several star topology
networks are linked together with linear bus trunks.
 If one computer goes down, it will not affect the rest of
the network.
 The other computers can continue to communicate. If a
hub goes down, all computers on that hub are unable to
communicate.
Con…
 Star Ring
 The star ring (sometimes called a star-wired ring) appears
similar to the star bus. Both the star ring and the star bus are
centered in a hub that contains the actual ring or bus. Linear-
bus trunks connect the hubs in a star bus, while the hubs in a
star ring are connected in a star pattern by the main hub.
 Selecting a topology
 There are many factors to consider when deciding which
topology best suits the needs of an organization. The
following table provides some guidelines for selecting a
topology.
Network Transmission media
 Transmission Medium is the physical path between
transmitter and receiver in a data communication system.
 The characteristics and quality of data transmission are
determined both by the characteristics of the medium and
characteristics of the signal.
 Classes of transmission media
Con…
 Media of data transmission:
 Guided Transmission media- Data transmission is through solid medium, cable (wired
system).
 Unguided Transmission media– Data transmission through air /space, Antenna, vacuum, or
water (i.e. wireless system)

Guided transmission media (wired)

 Transmission capacity of guided media is described with respect to:
 Data rate or bandwidth
 Higher bandwidth gives higher data rate
 Distance the media can run
 Transmission impairments
 Attenuation
 Interference
 Commonly Types of Cables
 Twisted pair
 Coaxial cable
 Optical fiber
1. coaxial cable
 coaxial cable consists of a core of copper wire surrounded
by insulation, a braided metal shielding, and an outer cover.
 The term shielding refers to the woven or stranded metal
mesh (or other material) that surrounds some types of
cabling.
 Shielding protects transmitted data by absorbing stray
electronic signals, called noise, so that they do not get onto
the cable and distort the data.
 The core of a coaxial cable carries the electronic signals
that make up the data.
 This wire core can be either solid or stranded. If the core is
solid, it is usually copper.
Con…
 Types of Coaxial Cable
 There are two types of coaxial cable:
 Thin (thin net) cable
 Thick (thick net) cable


 The shielding protects transmitted data by absorbing stray

electronic signals, called noise, so that they do not get onto the
cable and distort the data
 The core of a coaxial cable carries the electronic signals
Con…
 Coaxial-Cable Connection Hardware
 Both thin net and thick net cable use a connection component,
known as a BNC connector, to make the connections between
the cable and the computers
 BNC connectors
2. Twisted-Pair Cable
2.
 twisted-pair cable consists of two insulated strands of
copper wire twisted around each other
 A number of twisted-pair wires are often grouped together
and enclosed in a protective sheath to form a cable.
 The total number of pairs in a cable varies. The twisting
cancels out electrical noise from adjacent pairs and from
other sources such as motors, relays, and transformers.
 Two types of twisted pair cable
 Unshielded twisted pair cable(UTP)
 Shielded twisted pair cable (STP)
Twisted-Pair Cable Pros ,Cons and characteristics
 Cheap
 Easy to work with
 Low data rate
 Short range
 Analog
 Amplifiers every 5km to 6km
 Digital
 Use either analog or digital signals
 repeater every 2km or 3km
 Limited distance
 Limited bandwidth (1MHz)
 Limited data rate (100MHz)
 Susceptible to interference and noise
 A) Unshielded twisted pair cable(UTP)
 Ordinary telephone wire
 Cheapest
 Easiest to install
 Suffers from external EM interference
 UTP, using the 10BaseT specification, is the most popular type
of twisted-pair cable and is fast becoming the most popular
LAN cabling.
 The maximum cable length segment is 100 meters, about 328
feet
 There are five categories of UTP
 Category 1 This refers to traditional UTP telephone cable that can
carry voice but not data transmissions.
 Most telephone cable prior to 1983 was Category 1 cable.
CON…
 Category 2 This category certifies UTP cable for data
transmissions up to 4 megabits per second (Mbps).
 It consists of four twisted pairs of copper wire.
 Category 3 This category certifies UTP cable for data
transmissions up to 16 Mbps.
 It consists of four twisted pairs of copper wire with three twists per
foot.
 Category 4 This category certifies UTP cable for data
transmissions up to 20 Mbps.
 It consists of four twisted pairs of copper wire.
 Category 5 This category certifies UTP cable for data
transmissions up to 100 Mbps.
 It consists of four twisted pairs of copper wire.
B) Shielded Twisted-Pair (STP) Cable
 STP cable uses a woven copper-braid jacket that is more protective
and of a higher quality than the jacket used by UTP.
 STP also uses a foil wrap around each of the wire pairs.
 This gives STP excellent shielding to protect the transmitted data
from outside interference, which in turn allows it to support higher
transmission rates over longer distances than UTP.
 Metal braid or sheathing that reduces interference
 More expensive
 Harder to handle (thick, heavy)

 Connection hardware Twisted-pair cabling uses RJ-45 telephone

connectors to connect to a computer.
 These are similar to RJ-11 telephone connectors.
 Although RJ-11 and RJ-45 connectors look alike at first glance, there
are crucial differences between them.
3. Fibre-optic
 In fibre-optic cable, optical fibres carry digital data signals
in the form of modulated pulses of light
 This is a relatively safe way to send data because, unlike
copper-based cables that carry data in the form of
electronic signals,
Optical Fiber - Characteristics
 Greater capacity
 data rates of hundreds of Gbps
 Smaller size & weight
 Lower attenuation
 Electromagnetic isolation
 Greater repeater spacing
 10s of km at least
uses total internal reflection to transmit light
 effectively acts as wave guide for 1014 to 1015 Hz
can use several different light sources
 Light Emitting Diode (LED)
o cheaper,wider operates on a greater temp range, and has a longer
operational life
 Injection Laser Diode (ILD)
o more efficient, has greater data rate
Con…
Two types of fiber optic cables
 Multimode Fiber optic cable
 Fiber optic cable where the light signal travels dispersed
through the core
 Core is usually 50-62m in diameter
 Maximum distance signal travels without a repeater is
500m
 Single Mode fiber
 Fiber optic cable where the light signal travels in a single
mode through the core
 Maximum distance signal travels without a repeater is
10km (with the appropriate modulation up to 100km)
Advantage and Disadvantage of Fiber optic
 Provide high quality transmission of signal at very high speed
 These are not affected by electromagnetic interference , so noise and
distortion is very less
 Increased capacity and bandwidth
 Light weight
 Less signal attenuation
Disadvantage
 Expensive
 Difficult to install and maintain
 Maintenance is expensive and difficult
 Fragile(easily broken or damaged)
 unidirectional, ie, will need another fibre, if we need bidirectional
communication
2. UNGUIDED MEDIA: WIRELESS
 Unguided media transport electromagnetic waves without using a
physical conductor.
 In unguided media transmission and reception are achieved by
means of an antenna.
 There are two types of configuration for wireless transmission
namely, directional and Omni-directional.
 This type of communication is often referred to as wireless
communication.
 Features:
 Signal is broadcasted through air
 Less Secure
 Used for larger distances
 Types of Unguided
 Wireless LAN
 Radio Communication
 Microwave Communication
 Infrared Communication
 Wi-Fi
 Bluetooth Technology
 Satellite communication
Con…
 Infrared Transmission
 All infrared wireless networks operate by using an infrared light beam
to carry the data between devices.
 Typically used where laying a cable is not practical
 Parabolic dish shaped antenna for directional and bar-like antenna
for omnidirectional transmission
 Transmits/receives electromagnetic waves in the 2-40 GHz range
 Travels in a straight line (line-of-sight propagation)
 High data rates: 100’s Mbps
 Repeaters spaced 10 - 100 km apart
 Applications : telephone and data transmission- wireless LANs
 Many of the high-end printers sold today are preconfigured to accept
infrared signals.
Terrestrial microwave

Microwave Transmission Disadvantages

line of sight requirement
expensive towers and repeaters
subject to interference such as passing
airplanes and rain
Satellite Microwave Transmission
 A microwave relay station in space
 Can relay signals over long distances
 Geostationary satellites
 remain above the equator at a height of 22,300 miles(36,000 km)
(geosynchronous orbit)
 travel around the earth in exactly the time the earth takes to rotate

Satellite Transmission Links

 Earth stations communicate by sending signals to the satellite
on an uplink
 The satellite then repeats those signals on a downlink
 The broadcast nature of the downlink makes it attractive for
services such as the distribution of television programming
Satellite Transmission Process

satellite
transponder

dish
dish
22,300 miles

uplink station downlink station

Radio Broadcasting
 Radio is Omni-directional and microwave is
directional
 Radio is a general term used to encompass
frequencies in the range of 3 kHz to 300 GHz.
 We are using the informal term broadcast
radio to cover the VHF and part of the UHF
band: 30 MHz to 1 GHz.
 This range covers FM radio and UHF and
VHF television. This range is also used for a
number of data networking applications.
Infrared
 Uses transmitters/receivers (transceivers) that modulate
noncoherent infrared light.
 Transceivers must be within line of sight of each other
(directly or via reflection ).
 Unlike microwaves, infrared does not penetrate walls.
Con…
 Factors in designing data transmissions systems:
1) Bandwidth:- All other factors remaining constant, the greater
the bandwidth of a signal, the higher the data rate that can be
achieved.
2) Transmission impairments: - such as attenuation, noise. 
3) Interference: signals working in the close frequencies range
and interference with other the nearby cable (cross talk) for
guided systems.
4) Number of receivers: A guided media can be used to construct
a point to point link or a shared link with multiple attachments.
 In multiple attachment case, each attachment introduces some
attenuation and distortion and usually the bandwidth available
will be shared among the various attachments.