Introduction to TOS-I

Theory of Structure - I
Lecture Outlines
 Introduction
 History of Structural Engineering
 Forms of Structures
 Materials
 Loads

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Introduction
STRUCTURAL
ENGINEERING

1ST YEAR 2ND YEAR 3RD YEAR 4TH YEAR

THEORY OF THEORY OF
ENGG. STRUC.
STRUCTURES STRUCTURES
MECHANICS ENGG.
I II
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History of Structural
Engineering
 Why history is important?
 One reason why history is important it that the
past has value to our society.
 History is the narrative of mankind.
 History when presented properly lends itself to
critical analysis.

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History of Structural
Engineering
 Greek and Egyptian Temples
 Made of stone
 Employed beams and columns
 Many columns having little useful space between
them

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 Greek temple built 2500 years ago
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 Greek temples of Poseidonia (now called Paestum)
dating from the sixth century BC.
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 The Temple of Debod built in early 2nd century BC
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 Egypt: Temples of Karnak built 2000 years ago

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History of Structural
Engineering
 Arch structures were discovered prior to
Roman era.
 Roman Empire used arches extensively in
construction.
 Stone arches had span of 100 ft and more

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The Colosseum is one of Rome's most distinctive
landmarks.  Construction of this famous amphitheatre
began in 72 AD.
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 Arches

Aqueducts

Aqueduct at Segovia in eastern Spain

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 The arch of Costantino built in 312 AD
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History of Structural
Engineering
 From A.D. 500 to A.D.1500, structures that
were built continued to employ the stone arch
as the major structural forms.
 Gothic Cathedrals
 Roof was supported by flying buttresses

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 Flying
Buttress
Cathedral
from North
East
Chichester

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 Flying
Buttress

Cathedral
from South
East
Chichester

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History of Structural
Engineering
 Fifteenth and Sixteenth centuries are known as
Renaissance.
 Galileo (1564-1642)
 Concept of force and moments

 Robert Hooke (1635-1703)

 Law of linear behavior of materials

 Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727)

 Laws of motion

 Leonhard Euler (1707-1783)

 Buckling of columns

 Palladio
 introduced the use of truss
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 GALILEO ROBERT HOOKE

ISSAC NEWTON LEONHARD EULER PALLADIO

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History of Structural
Engineering
 Modern Era
 Introduction of Iron
 Industrial Revolution
 First major structure built or iron was Severn
River Bridge Coalbrookdale.
 Suspension bridges
 Thomas Telford’s Bridge over Menai Straits in
Wales,
 Brunel’s Clifton Bridge in Bristol,
 Finley’s Bridge over Merrimack River in
Newburyport, Massachusetts.
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Iron bridge, a cast-iron arch bridge built in 1779 across the
River Severn near Coalbrookdale, Shropshire, England
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Thomas Telford built the suspension bridge in the middle in 1826. They had
to destroy some of the castle to anchor it to the rock.

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Isambard Kingdom Brunel designs the Clifton Suspension Bridge at
Bristol. Two hundred feet above the River Avon, the bridge is 700 feet
long.
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History of Structural
Engineering
Rank Building - City - Country Year Stories Height

1. Burj Dubai, Dubai, UAE 2008 189* 850m*

2. Taipei 101, Taipei, Taiwan 2004 101 509m

3. Petronas Tower 1, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia 1998 88 452m

4. Petronas Tower 2, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia 1998 88 452m

5. Sears Tower, Chicago, USA 1974 110 442m

6. Jin Mao Building, Shanghai, China 1999 88 421m

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Department of Civil Engineering 24
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Forms of Structures

Structural Forms

Cables Arches Trusses Beams

Surfaces

Membranes Plates Shells

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Cables
 Cables stretch well and are light, so they are
useful in large structures. They only take
tension stresses.
 Cables can be crisscrossed and combined
with surface materials to achieve light and
large structures.
 Examples of this technique are Suncoast
Dome and Georgia Dome in the United
States
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 Hanger Tower
Cable

Cable Road Way

Anchorage

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Cables
 Grace Memorial Bridge over the Cooper River
 Between Charleston, South Carolina (USA) and
Mount Pleasant, South Carolina, stands the Grace
Memorial Bridge. 
 Completed in 1929, the cantilever steel structure
has a main span of 1050 ft., or 320 m. and a total
length of 3.6 miles or 5.79 Kilometers. 
 A parallel bridge, with a similar design but a shorter
main span, was built in 1966.  This allowed the old
bridge to be converted to one-way traffic. 
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Grace Memorial Bridge over the Cooper River
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Arches
 An arch is a curved structure capable of
spanning a space while supporting significant
weight (e.g. a doorway in a stone wall).
 The arch is significant because, in theory at
least, it provides a structure which eliminates
tensile stresses in spanning an open space.
 All the forces are resolved into compressive
stresses.

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 Chinese Moon Bridge
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Made by Zhao1974 in Hebei Province, China. Built by the
architect Li Chun from 595 to 605 AD. World's oldest fully-
stone, open-spandrel, segmental arch bridge.
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 Triangular Arch Round Arch Segmental Arch

Rampant Round Lancet Arch Shoulder Flat Three-Foiled

Arch Arch Cusped Arch

Equilateral
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Technology, Taxila, Pakistan
Horseshoe Arch Three-centered Elliptical Arch
Arch

Inflexed Arch Ogee Arch Reverse Ogee Tudor Arch

Arch

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Technology, Taxila, Pakistan
Truss
 In architecture and structural engineering, a
truss is a structure comprising one or more
triangular units constructed with straight
slender members whose ends are connected
at joints.
 A plane truss is one where all the members
and joints lie within a 2-dimensional plane,
while a space truss has members and joints
extending into 3 dimensions.
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Truss
 All members are assumed in axial
compression or tension.
 Members are joined with the help of
frictionless pins.
 Loads are applied at joints only.

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 Types of Trusses

Common Truss Flat Truss Truncated Truss

It is characterized by It gets its name from A combination of the

its triangular shape. its parallel top and two is a truncated
bottom chords. truss.
It is most often used
for roof construction. It is often used for It is used in hip roof
floor construction. construction.

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Support structure under the Auckland Harbour Bridge.
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 A Vierendeel bridge; note the lack of diagonal elements in the
primary structure and the way bending loads are carried between
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Beams
 A beam is a structural element that carries
load primarily in bending (flexure).
 Beams generally carry vertical gravitational
forces but can also be used to carry
horizontal loads (i.e. loads due to an
earthquake or wind).
 The loads carried by a beam are transferred
to columns, walls, or girders, which then
transfer the force to adjacent structural
compression members.
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Beams
 It requires only vertical supports at ends
generally.
 It is a compact structure.
 It’s disadvantage is that it sometimes uses
materials less economically than other
structural systems.

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Surfaces

Surfaces

Membranes Plates Shells

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Membranes
 Thin sheets of material

 Resist applied loads by

tension.

 Examples are tents,

sails, balloons etc

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Plates
 Plates are flat
surfaces that transfer
loads by bending in a
manner similar to
beams.

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Shells
 Shell is rigid surface
that transfers loads in
two directions.
 The primary difference
between a plate and a
shell is that the shell
has curvature whereas
the plate does not. TWA Flight Center, John F. Kennedy
International Airport, New York.

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Materials
Properties
of Material

Deformation
Strength
Characteristics

Strengt
Comp.
h to Stiff Elastic Ductile
Tension
weight
Resist.
ratio
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Materials
 Aggregates
 Steel
 Concrete
 Wood
 Aluminum
 Fiber Glass
 Composite Materials etc.

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Loads

Loads Loads

Dynamic
Static Loads Dead Live
Loads

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Loads Building
Live Loads

Bridge Live
Loads

Earthquake
Live Loads Loads

Snow
Loads

Wind
Loads
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Department of Civil Engineering 54
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