Unit 48: Structural Behaviour and Detailing for Construction

Loads on Buildings and Structures

3.1 Introduction
Understanding structural mechanics and structural design requires knowledge of
many inter-linked factors. These includes the loads and load actions on the
structure, the strength properties of the materials from which structural
elements are made, the ways by which the loads and load actions are
transferred via the structure to the foundations, the interaction between the
foundations and the supporting ground, structural stability, durability and
environmental conditions.

It is therefore important to estimate accurately the loads that a structure has to

withstand during its intended useful life, in order to achieve safety and economy
in design.

The behaviour of structures under loads depends on the strength properties of

the materials of construction and the interaction between the components and
parts of the structural frame and between the structural frame, its foundations
and the supporting ground. Designers in their structural analysis try to predict
this behaviour of the structure and identify the model to be used in the
structural analysis. If they succeed the designs will usually be safe and
economic.

At present, existing knowledge of the loads on structures, properties of the

materials of construction and analysis of structural frames is well advanced so
that structural design can usually be considered to be economic with regard to
these aspects. However, future research on understanding the actions of loads
on structures will help to reduce a number of existing uncertainties and hence
result in safer and more economic designs.

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 Unit 48: Structural Behaviour and Detailing for Construction

3.2 Load Types

In design, the loads on buildings and structures are classified into different types
based on their frequency of occurrence and method of assessment. These are:

Dead loads
Imposed loads
Wind loads
Earth and liquid pressures
Other load effects such as thermal effects; ground movement; shrinkage
and creep in concrete; and vibration.

For each type of load, there will be a characteristic value and a design value.
These will be explained later in this chapter. The design of any particular
element of the frame of the structure or of the structure as a whole has to be
based on the design load or design load combination that is likely to produce the
most adverse effect on that element or the structure as a whole in terms of
compression, tension, bending, moment, shear, deflection, torsion and
overturning.

3.2.1 Dead Loads

BS 6399-1: 1996 Loading for buildings, Part 1: Code of practice for dead and
imposed loads.

https://www.google.com.mt/#hl=en&output=search&sclient=psy-ab&q=BS+6399-
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Dead load is the weight of structural components, such as floors, walls and
finishes, and includes all other permanent attachments to structures such as
pipes, electrical conduits, air conditioning, heating ducts and all items intended
to remain in place throughout the life of the structure. It is calculated from the
unit weights given in BS 648: 1964 Schedule of weights of building materials or
from the actual known weights of the materials used.

In the analysis process, although the dead load of the structural parts or
members can be calculated accurately, it is usual practice to simplify
complicated load distributions to reduce the analysis and design time, for
example in the design of beams an approximate uniformly distributed load is
usually used instead of the actual stepped-type loading.

In the design process, the assessment of the dead load of most load bearing
structural parts has to be done in practice by a method of trial and error to
determine the approximate dimensions required for such parts. However, for

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 Unit 48: Structural Behaviour and Detailing for Construction

most of the common types of structural elements, for example slabs, beams and
columns, there are some simple rules for assessing the approximate dimensions
required. These rules are explained in the relevant code of practice, for example,
for reinforced concrete and steel structures see BS 8110: Part 1: 1997 and BS
5950: 2000 respectively.

http://www.scribd.com/doc/58441540/BS8110-PART-1-1997

3.2.2 Imposed Loads

BS 6399-1: 1996 Loading for buildings, Part 1 : Code of practice for dead and
imposed loads.

Imposed loads are sometimes called live loads or superimposed loads. They are
gravity loads varying in magnitude and location. They are assumed to be
produced by the intended occupancy or use of the structure. They include
distributed, concentrated, impact and snow loads but exclude wind loads. Such
loads are usually caused by human occupancy, furniture and storage of
materials, or their combinations. Because of the unknown nature of the
magnitude, location and distribution of imposed load items, realistic values are
difficult to determine. These values are prescribed by both government and local
building codes.

BS 6399 -1 : 1996 Loading for buildings, Part1 : Code of practice for dead and
imposed loads gives imposed loads for various occupancy and functional
requirements of buildings, such as

Domestic and residential (dwelling houses, flats, hotels, guest houses)

Institutional and exhibitions (schools, colleges and universities)
Industrial (warehouses, factories, power stations)
Bridges (pedestrian, highway and railway)
Shopping areas
Warehousing and storage areas.

Even with this classification there is still broad variation in the imposed loads, for
example within the high school building some space is used in classrooms and
laboratories. The imposed loads for these various buildings are different and
hence different values should be specified for design.

In structures such as highways bridges, it is necessary to consider traffic loads in

terms of both a concentrated load and a varying uniformly distributed load. In
addition, the effect of impact forces due to traffic loading must be accounted for.

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 Unit 48: Structural Behaviour and Detailing for Construction

3.2.3 Reduction in Total Imposed Floor Loads

The code of practice allows for the reduction of imposed loads in the design of
certain structural components and should be consulted for full details. Briefly the
main reductions are as follows:

Beams and girders. Where a single span of a beam or girder supports not less
than 46 m2 of floor at one general level, the imposed load may in the design of
the beam or girder be reduced by 5 per cent for each 46 m2 supported subject to
a maximum reduction of 25 per cent. No reduction, however, shall be made for
any plant or machinery for which specific provision has been made nor for
buildings for storage purposes, warehouses, garages and those offices areas that
are used for storage and filing purposes.

Columns, piers, walls, their supports and foundations. The imposed floor
loads contributing to the total loads for the design of such structural elements
may be reduced in accordance with Table 1.

This reduction is allowed because of the reduced probability that the full imposed
loads will occur at all the floors simultaneously.

Reduction in total distributed

Number of floors, including the
imposed load on all floors carried
roof, carried by member under
by the member under construction
consideration
(%)
1 0

2 10

3 20

4 30

5 to 10 40

Over 10 50

Table 1: Reduction in total distributed imposed floor loads

3.2.4 Dynamic Loads

Dynamic loads are those that produce dynamic effects from machinery,
runways, cranes and other plant supported by or connected to the structure.
Allowance is made for these dynamic effects, including impact, in the design of
the relevant structural parts.

To allow for such effects in practical design, it is common practice in most cases
to increase the dead-weight value of machinery or plant by an adequate amount

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 Unit 48: Structural Behaviour and Detailing for Construction

to cater for the additional dynamic effect, and a static analysis is then carried
out for these increased loads and the computed load effects used in the design.
The appropriate dynamic increase for all affected members is ascertained as
accurately as possible and must comply with the relevant code of practice.

3.2.5 Load from Partitions

Clause 5.1.4 of BS 6399-1:1996.

Dead loads from permanent partitions. Where permanent partitions are

shown in the construction plans their actual weights shall be included in the dead
load. For floors of offices, this additional uniformly distributed partition load
should be not less than 1.0 kN /m2.

Imposed loads from demountable partitions. To provide for demountable

partitions it is normal practice to consider an equivalent uniformly distributed
load of not less than one-third of the per metre run of the finished partitions and
treat it as an imposed load in design.

3.2.6 Wind Loads on Structures

BS 6399-2: 1997 Loading for buildings. Part 2:Code of practice for wind loads.

Wind loads depend on the wind environment and on the aerodynamic and
aeroelastic behaviour of the building. Wind loads on structures are dynamic
loads due to changes in wind speed. When the wind flow meets an obstruction,
such as a building or a structure, it has to change speed and direction to keep
flowing around the building and over it. In this process of change in direction it
exerts pressures of varying magnitudes on the face, sides and roof of the
building. In structural analysis and design it is necessary to consider the design
wind loads due to these pressures in combination with other applied imposed
and dead loads. For convenience in design it is usual practice to consider the
wind loads as static loads. However, for some light tall structures, such as metal
chimneys, the dynamic effects of the wind, such as induced oscillations, have to
be considered in design.

Owing to the change in direction when wind flow encounters stable structures,
the induced wind pressure can vary in direction such that the resultant wind
loads are horizontal and vertical. Furthermore, since the wind direction varies
with time the wind loads on structures have to be considered as of possible
application from all directions.

In view of the complexity of the assessment of wind loads on structures it is not

possible to give the subject full treatment here.

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 Unit 48: Structural Behaviour and Detailing for Construction

Figure 1: Wind speed and Noise level versus time

The effective wind loads on structures are dependent on the wind speed,
geographical location of structure or building, size, shape and height.

The wind normally blows in gusts of varying speed, and its direction depends on
the wind environment. Figure 1 shows a typical graph of speed versus time
during a gale.

The wind pressure, which is caused by changes of wind speed from Ve in m/s
(metres/second) to zero, as occurs when the wind meets a building and has to
change direction, is given by qs :

Dynamic pressure ( in pascals, Pa (N/m2))

The air density = 1.226kg/m3

Ve = effective wind speed from section 2.2.3 of BS 6399: 1997 Loading for
buildings Part 2: Code of practice for wind loads.

Therefore:

Equation 1

The wind speed to be used in equation (1) is not the maximum recorded value.
It should be calculated from the relevant section of the code of practice. For
example from section 2.2.3 of BS 6399: 1997 Loading for buildings, Part 2: Code
of practice for wind loads.

If the shape of the structure is streamlined, then the change in wind speed is
reduced and hence the dynamic wind pressure will also be reduced (see the
relevant code of practice).

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 Unit 48: Structural Behaviour and Detailing for Construction

3.2.7 Loads on Structures Summary

Dead loads or permanent actions according to the Eurocodes

They are the self-weight of structures or buildings, and are caused by the effect
of gravity, and so act downwards. Dead loads are calculated from the actual
known weights of the materials used (see Table 2). Where there is doubt as to
the permanency of dead loads, such loads should be considered as imposed
loads. Dead loads are the unit weight multiplied by the volume. For more
information, see the relevant code of practice or, in the UK, see BS 6399-1:1996
and BS 648: 1964.

Material Weight Material Weight

Asphalt Plaster
2 Two coats gypsum, 13mm 2
Roofing 2 layers, 19mm thick 42kg/m 22kg/m
thick
2 2
Damp-proofing, 19 mm thick 44 kg/m Plastic sheeting (corrugated) 4.5kg/m
Road and footpaths, 19 mm 2
44 kg/m Plywood
thick
2
Bitumen roofing felts Per mm thick 0.7kg/m
2 3
Mineral surfaced bitumen 3.5kg/m Reinforced concrete 2400kg/m
Blockwork Rendering
Solid per 25mm thick, stone 2 Cement: sand (1:3), 13mm 2
55kg/m 30kg/m
aggregate thick
2
Aerated per 25mm thick 15kg/m Screeding
Cement: sand (1:3), 13mm 2
Board 30kg/m
thick
2
Blackboard per 25mm thick 12.5kg/m Slate tiles
(depending upon thickness 2
Brickwork 24-78kg/m
and source)
Clay, solid per 25mm thick 2
55kg/m Steel
medium density
2 3
Concrete, solid per 25mm thick 59kg/m Solid (mild) 7850kg/m
3 Corrugated roofing sheets, 2
Cast stone 2250kg/m 10kg/m
per mm thick
Concrete Tarmacadam
3 2
Natural aggregates 2400kg/m 25mm thick 60kg/m
Lightweight aggregates +240 3
1760 kg/m Terrazzo
(structural) -160
2
Flagstones 25mm thick 54kg/m
2
Concrete, 50mm thick 120kg/m Tiling, roof
2
Glass fibre Clay 70 kg/m
2
Slab, per 25mm thick 2.0 5.0kg/m Timber
2
Gypsum, panels and partitions Softwood 590 kg/m
2 3
Building panels 75mm thick 44 kg/m Hardwood 1250 kg/m
2
Lead Water 1000 kg/m
3
Sheet, 2.5mm thick 30 kg/m Woodwool
2
Linoleum Slabs, 25mm thick 15 kg/m
2
3mm thick 6 kg/m
Table 2: Weights of building materials (Source: Adapted from Various extracts, British Standards for Students of
Structural Design, PP7312:2002 (British Standards Institute)) See also BS 648:1964 Schedule of weight of building
materials.

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Imposed loads or variable actions according to Eurocodes

They are gravity loads which vary in magnitude and location and are appropriate
to the types of activity or occupancy for which a floor area will be used in
service; see the appropriate code of practice or Table 1 of BS 6399 -1: 1996.

Moveable imposed loads. Such as furniture, stored material, people, etc. Caused
by gravity, act downwards. Considered in structural design and analysis as static
loads. Also called superimposed loads or live loads.

Moving imposed loads. Such as vehicles, cranes, trains, etc. Their dynamic
effects should be considered in addition to their static effects.

Wind loads

Due to dynamic wind movements, these depends on the wind environment and
on the aerodynamic and aeroelastic behaviour of the structure or building.

Variable in intensity and direction. Depend on:

1. Shape of structure/building

2. Height of structure/ building above its base

3. Location of structure/ building, directional and topographic effects.

See the relevant national code of practice or BS 6399:1997-Part 2:Code of

practice for wind loads.

Others

Soil pressure, hydraulic pressure, thermal effects, ground movement, shrinkage

and creep in concrete, and vibration are determined by special methods found in
specialist literature.

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