TERMINOLOGY AND

DEFINITIONS
 AEROFOIL.
 BOUNDARY LAYER.
 THE CHORD LINE.
 THE CHORD.
 THE MEAN CAMBER LINE.
 MAXIMUM CAMBER.
 MAXIMUM THICKNESS.
 MAXIMUM THICKNESS CHORD RATIO.
 ANGLE OF ATTACK.
 ANGLE OF INCIDENCE.
AIRFOIL DESIGN
 AEROFOIL
 A BODY SO SHAPED AS TO PRODUCE
AERODYNAMIC REACTION NORMAL TO
THE DIRECTION OF ITS MOTION THROUGH
THE AIR WITHOUT EXCESSIVE DRAG.
 BOUNDARY LAYER
 THE THIN LAYER OF AIR ADJACENT TO A SURFACE,
IN WHICH THE VISCOUS FORCES ARE DOMINANT.
OR

 THE LAYER OF AIR OF DESIRED THICKNESS IN

WHICH VELOCITY CHANGES FROM ZERO TO
MAXIMUM

 TWO TYPES
1.) LAMINAR
2.) TURBULANT
 When the stream lines are close together it illustrates
increased velocity and vice versa.
 Diverging streamlines illustrates a decelerating airflow
and resultant increasing pressure and converging
streamlines an accelerating airflow, with resultant
decreasing pressure.
 BOUNDARY LAYER
LAMINAR AND TURBULENT
Turbulent airflow has maximum thickness and causes
more skin friction drag then laminar flow.
Turbulent airflow has more energy and no direction.
Principle benefit of turbulent airflow is delay separation
because of more energy.

TURBULENT
 maximum thickness.
 more energy.
 more skin friction drag.
(parasite drag)
 no direction.
 delay separation.
 Transition Point: Point where laminar flow first
time changes to turbulent.

 Separation point: Point where turbulent airflow

detaches from the aerofoil.
 CHORD LINE
A Straight line joining the
leading edge and trailing
edges of a wing.
 THE CHORD
 The length of the chord line
that is used as a reference for
all other dimensions relating to
a wing.
MEAN CAMBER LINE
 The line drawn equidistant
between the upper and lower
surface of an aerofoil.
 MAXIMUM CAMBER
 THE MAXIMUM
DISTANCE BETWEEN
THE MEAN CAMBER
LINE AND THE CHORD
LINE.
 THIS IS ONE OF THE
VARIABLES
DETERMINING THE
AERODYNAMIC
CHARACTERISTICS OF
A WING.
 MAXIMUM THICKNESS
 THE MAXIMUM DISTANCE
BETWEEN THE UPPER AND
LOWER SURFACE.
 Where lift is maximum.
 Also known as point of maximum
lift.
 MAXIMUM THICKNESS
CHORD RATIO
 The ratio of maximum thickness to chord
expressed as a percentage.
 For subsonic wings the ratio is
normally 12 – 14 %
 Angle of ATTACK
 a or (alpha)
 Also known as aerodynamic incidence.

 The angle between the chord line and the relative air flow.
 3 special AOA

 -4° : zero lift AOA for asymmetric aerofoil

 +4° : most efficient AOA (L/D max)
 +16° : The stalling angle, lift starts to
decrease and C.P moves aft
 ANGLE OF INCIDENCE
 The angle between the chord line and the
horizontal datum (longitudinal axis) of the
aircraft.
 This angle is fixed for the wing, variable for the
tail plane.
 But
 Extending the trailing edge flaps increases AOI
 Extending the leading edge flaps decreases AOI
 CENTRE OF GRAVITY
 POINT AT WHICH THE AIRPLANE WOULD
BALANCE IF IT WERE POSSIBLE TO
SUSPEND IT AT THAT POINT.
 ALSO CALLED AS THE POINT AT WHICH THE
ENTIRE WEIGHT OF AIRPLANE IS ASSUMED
TO BE CONCENTRATED.
 EXPRESSED IN INCHES FROM THE
REFERENCE DATUM OR IN % OF MEAN
AERODYNAMIC CHORD.
 LOCATION DEPENDS ON THE DISTRIBUTION
OF WEIGHT IN THE PLANE.
 LIFT
 Aerodynamic force which acts at 90° to
the relative airflow or flight path.
 Also called as static pressure differential
above and below wing.
 DRAG
 The aerodynamic force which acts parallel
to and in the same direction as the relative
air flow (or opposite to the flight path).
 Centre of Pressure (CP)
 The point on the chord line, through which
lift is considered to act.
 CENTRE OF PRESSURE
 A POINT ALONG THE WING CHORD
LINE WHERE LIFT IS CONSIDERED TO
BE CONCENTRATED.
AOA INCREASES WILL CAUSES:
 Centre of pressure (CP) to move forward.
(reaches its most forward point just below
the stalling angle)
 Transition point to move forward.
 Separation point to move forward.
 STAGINATION POINT TO MOVE DOWN
AND BACK (AFT) towards the under
surface of the wing.
 Movement of centre of Pressure:
As the angle of attack increases from 0° to 16° the
upper `suction` peak moves forward so the point at
which the lift is effectively concentrated, the CP, will
move forward.

 The Centre of Pressure (CP), and thus the line of

action of the lift force, moves forward as the angle of
attack increases. Just before the stall, the lift force
reaches a maximum value and the CP is at its most
forward position. Just before the Stall, lift is at its most
forward position. At the stall, lift fails sharply and the
CP moves backwards.

 THE CENTRE OF PRESSURE moves – Fwd and then

Rearward
 Relative Airflow
(Relative Wind or Free Stream Flow or undisturbed air flow)

 Relative air flow has three qualities.

 DIRECTION – air parallel to, and in the opposite
direction to the flight path of the aircraft, in fact the path
of the CG; the direction in which the aircraft is pointing is
irrelevant.
 CONDITION – air close to, but unaffected by the
presence of the aircraft; its pressure, temperature and
velocity are not affected by the passage of the aircraft
through it.
 MAGNITUDE - The magnitude of the relative airflow is
the TAS.
 If airflow does not possess all three of these qualities, it
is referred to as EFECTIVE AIRFLOW (true airflow)
 TOTAL REACTION
 The resultant of all the aerodynamic forces
acting on the aerofoil section
perpendicular to chord line.

 this resultant of aerodynamic forces is

known as total reaction.
 UPWASH AND DOWNWASH.
 As air flows towards an aerofoil it will be
turned towards the lower pressure at the
upper surface; this is termed UPWASH.

 After passing over the aerofoil the airflow

returns to its original position and state;
this is termed as DOWNWASH.
 Stagnation Point
 As the dividing streamline approaches the aerofoil it
slows down, and momentarily comes to rest just
below the leading edge, forming a stagnation point.

 POINT OF HIGHEST PRESSURE AND ZERO

VELOCITY

 Position: At normal angles of attack, the forward

stagnation point is situated below the leading edge,
allowing the airflow passing over the upper surface to
initially travel forward.
 Geometric Dihedral (lateral dihedral)
The angle between the horizontal datum
of an aeroplane and the plane of a wing or
horizontal stabiliser semi-span.

 Anhedral
Negative geometric dihedral is used on
some aircraft, and is known as Anhedral.
 Longitudinal Dihedral
 The difference between the angle of incidence of the
Tail plane and the Main plane is the longitudinal
dihedral
 AC
 THE AC IS A FIXED POINT OF THE CHORD LINE
 Defined as: `The point where all changes in the
magnitude of the lift force effectively take place` AND :
`The point about which the pitching moment will remain
constant at `normal` angles of attack.
 A nose-down pitching moment exists about the AC which
is the product of a force (lift at the CP) and an arm
(distance from the CP to the AC)
 An increase in the angle of attack will increase the lift
force, but also move the CP towards the AC (shortening
the lever arm), the moment about the AC remains the
same at any angle of attack within the “normal” range.
 WASH OUT
Decrease in angle of incidence towards the tip
of a wing or other aerofoil.
(To promote root stall i.e., root of the wing will stall first.)

 WING LOADING
Ratio of aircraft weight to wing area.
Aircraft weight / wing area N/M^2
A.U.W or GROSS WEIGHT.
 Symmetrical cambered
 Zero lift AOA for a  Zero lift AOA for a
symmetrical aerofoil is 0 cambered aerofoil is - 4
degrees degrees

 Stalling angle is 18  Stalling angle is 16

degrees. degrees.

 Mean camber line and

chord line are same.

 There is no movement in
CP
 example: elevator rudder
and ailerons.
FORCES ACTING ON AIRCRAFT
 LIFT
 WEIGHT
 THRUST
 DRAG
IN STRAIGHT AND LEVEL
UNACCELERATED FLIGHT
 WEIGHT
 WEIGHT OF AIRCRAFT ITSELF + CREW
+ FUEL + CARGO OR BAGGAGE.
 WEIGHT + DOWNWARD FORCE DUE
TO GRAVITY.
 OPPOSES LIFT.
 ACTS VERTICALLY DOWNWARD
THROUGH THE AIRCRAFT CENTRE OF
GRAVITY (CG).
 LIFT
 OPPOSE THE DOWNWARD FORCE
(WEIGHT)
 PRODUCED BY THE DYNAMIC EFFECT
OF THE AIR ACTING ON AIRFOIL
(WING)
 ACTS PERPENDICULAR TO THE
FLIGHT PATH THROUGH CENTRE OF
PRESSURE.
 THRUST
 FORWARD FORCE PRODUCED BY
POWERPLANT/PROPELLER
 OPPOSES OR OVERCOMES THE
FORCE OF DRAG.
 ACTS PARALLEL TO THE
LONGITUDINAL AXIS.
 DRAG
 REARWARD FORCE CAUSED BY
DISRUPTION OF AIRFLOW BY THE
WING,FUSELAGE,LANDING GEAR.
 DRAG OPPOSES THRUST.
 ACTS REARWARD PARALLEL TO THE
RELATIVE WIND.
 Load factor - n

 Load factor = lift / weight

 In Level flight, n = L / W = 800 / 800 = 1
 In climbing, n = L / W = 700 / 800 = .8 < 1
 In climb lift required (700)is less than the
weight (800) rest of lift is drag (100)
 Load factor
 Lift /weight. 1/ cosƟ
 In flight n=1
 Climbing n = < 1
 descending n = < 1
 Dive n=0
 Turning n > 1 i.e., 2g
 Load factor in turning
 Load factor 2g means 700 kg aircraft will feel its weight to
be 1400 kg hence lift requires doubles.

 In a turning flight there is a decrease in the vertical

component of lift (L cosƟ) and increase in the horizontal
component of lift (L sinƟ)

 To compensate for the loss of vertical component of lift

AOA and power must be increased.

 Horizontal component of lift (L sinƟ) is responsible for

turning the airplane and is known as centripetal force.
Wing span (b)

 Distance from tip to tip

 Average chord (c)
 The geometric average.

 The product of the span and the average

chord is the wing area (b x c = s)
 Aspect ratio (AR)
 THE PROPORTION OF THE SPAN AND
THE AVERAGE CHORD
 AR = b / c or b^2 / s
 The aspect ratio of the wing determines
the aerodynamic efficiency.
 Typical aspect ratio vary from 35 for high
performance sailplane and 3 for a jet
fighter.
 For high speed jet transport is 12
 Root chord Taper ratio
and tip chord  The ratio of the tip
chord to the root
 Chord length at the chord. The taper ratio
wing root. affects the lift
 Chord length at the distribution and the
wing tip. structural weight of
the wing.
 For rectangular wing
is 1.
 For pointed tip delta
wing is 0
SWEEP ANGLE

 THE ANGLE BETWEEN

THE LINE OF 25%
CHORD AND A
PERPENDICULAR TO
THE ROOT CHORD.
 Fineness ratio
 The fineness ratio is the ratio of the length
of a streamlined body to its maximum
width or diameter.
 Low fineness ratio has a short and fat
shape, where as a high fineness ratio
describes a long thin object.