AIRCRAFT INSTRUMENTS

PITOT STATIC INSTRUMENTS

 Instruments connected to the pitot static pressure system include the

airspeed indicator, the altimeter and the vertical speed indicator.
 This system includes a pitot pressure source and a static pressure
source.
 The pitot pressure source is usually located on the leading edge of the
wing where it is clear of slipstream, in a position to be as free as
possible of air disturbance & facing the line of flight.
 When the aircraft is in flight, the atmospheric pressure in the pitot
pressure system is increased by dynamic due to forward motion of
the aircraft through the air.
 The Air speed indicator is the only instrument concerned to the pitot
pressure source.

ALTIMETER:

 The altimeter is a special form of Aneroid Barometer [a barometer

without liquid] that measures the pressure of the atmosphere.
 It is concerned to the static pressure source through an outlet in the
back of the case.
 The outlet serves as a vent to allow static atmospheric pressure to
move into & out of the altimeter case as the airplane climbs or
descends.
 The atmospheric pressure at any section at any point is due to the
weight of the overlying air above, which decreases as the height above
the sea level increases.
 Hence the instrument can be calibrated to read in terms of height.
 Under standard air conditions of 15‘C, the weight of a column of air,
one square inch in area is 14.7 lb., at sea level.
 It exerts a pressure of 14.7 lbs per square inch.
 The pressure is recorded on the barometer as 29.92 inches of
mercury & by an altimeter as 0 feet.
 At 10,000 feet the weight of one square inch air column has
decreased to 10.11 lb., the corresponding barometric pressure to
20.58 inches, and altimeter records 10,000 feet.
 The decrease in pressure is sensed by the altimeter and registered as
an increase in height.

CONSTRUCTION:
 The basic components of the altimeter are a sack of aneroid capsules
located inside the case.
 These capsules are sealed and contain standard sea level pressure.
 Atmospheric pressure admitted to the case through the static
pressure system causes these capsules to expand & contract.
 The expansion & contraction of the capsules transmits motion
directly to gears and levers, which rotate hands on the face of the
altimeter.
 A large hand records altitude in units of thousands of feet; a smaller
hand records altitude in units of thousands of feet; and the third still
smaller hand records altitude in units of thousand feet.
 The altimeter is depicted in figure is showing 10,400 feet.

WORKING:
 As the aircraft climbs, the outside barometric pressure decreases and
air moves out of the case through the static pressure system.
 As a result, the aneroid capsules expand, causing an increased
altitude reading.
 As the aircraft descends, air moves into the altimeter case and the
capsules contract, causing a decreased altitude reading.
NOTE:
 Pressure altimeters are calibrated during manufacture to indicate a
true altitude in standard atmospheric condition.
 The maximum allowable tolerance is plus or minus 20 feet at sea
level.
 If, having set the current altimeter setting on the subscale and having
compared the altimeter reading to the unknown airport elevation,
there is an error of more than plus or minus 50 feet, the instrument
should be checked by maintenance.

THE VERTICAL SPEED INDICATOR [VSI]

 The vertical speed indicator [vertical velocity, or rate of climb] shows

the rate, in feet per minute, at which the aircraft is ascending or
descending.
 The principle on which it operates is the change in barometric
pressure, which occurs with any change in height.
 This instrument is contained in a sealed case and is also connected
to the static air pressure system.
 Atmospheric pressure is led from the static pressure source directly
into an aneroid capsule, or diaphragm, contained within the case of
the instrument.
 Air is also permitted to leak at a relatively slow rate through a
capillary tube into the case of the instrument.
 The difference between the quick change in pressure, which occurs
within the aneroid capsule, and the relatively slow rate at which this
pressure is equalized within the case causes the capsule to expand or
contract.
 This movement is amplified and transmitted by linkage to the pointer
on the dial of the instrument.
WORKING:
 When the aircraft loses altitude, pressure within the capsule
increases almost immediately, while pressure within the case
changes slowly.
 The capsule therefore expands and the pointer indicates DOWN in
feet per minute.
 When the aircraft gains altitude, the process is reversed and the
pointer indicates UP.
 When the airplane remains level, the pressures equalize and the
pointer indicates 0.
 Note that the vertical speed indicator registers the rate of climb or
descent, not the attitude of the aircraft.
 An aircraft may gain height in a vertical up current of air when it is
flying perfectly level.
 The vertical speed indicator should be closely co-coordinated with the
air speed indicator.
 Corrections for the altitude gained or lost in cruising flight should be
made by nosing the aircraft up or down [by use of the elevators].
 Intentional change in altitude should be made by increasing or
decreasing power at a given airspeed [by use of the throttle].

THE AIRSPEED INDICATOR

 The airspeed indicator tells the pilot the speed at which he is

traveling through the air [not over the ground].
 The dial is calibrated in knots and miles per hour.

CONSTRUCTION:
 The airspeed indicator is connected to both the pitot & static
pressure sources.
 To give a reading of speed through the air, the instrument measures
the difference between the pressure in the pitot pressure system and
the pressure in the static system.
 When the airplane is standing on the ground, the pressure in the two
systems is equal and the airspeed indicator registers 0.
 When the aircraft is in motion, the pressure in the pitot pressure
system is increased by dynamic pressure due to the forward motion
of the aircraft through the air [pitot pressure is therefore the sum of
atmospheric pressure and dynamic pressure].

WORKING:
 The airspeed indicator senses the total pressure in the pitot pressure
system, subtracts the pressure in the static system and gives reading
of the dynamic pressure, the measure of the aircraft’s forward speed.
 This reading is displayed on a graduated scale on the face of the
instrument and is called indicated airspeed.
 The pitot pressure source is connected to the interior of a thin
corrugated metal expansion box called the aneroid capsule and
admits pitot pressure into the capsule.
 The static pressure source is connected to the inside of the
instrument case and maintains the air in the case at the prevailing
atmospheric pressure.
 Changes in dynamic pressure inside the aneroid capsule cause it to
expand or contract.
 This movement is transmitted through a system of linkage to a hand
that rotates around a dial calibrated in knots and/or miles per hour.

ACCELEROMETER

 It is used on new aircraft during test flight to measure acceleration

loads on aircraft structure.
 It gives the accurate indication of stresses imposed on the aircraft
during flight in various speeds.
 It measures in gravity units and the acceleration of gravity being
exerted on the aircraft.
 It indicates excessive stress imposed on the aircraft structures during
flight.
 Usually its scale is graduated in gravity units ranging between +12g
to –5g. [Negative for nose over into dive or downward air current]

CONSTRUCTION:
 It consists of a mass weight that moves freely on the mass shaft,
three pulleys, balance spring and a pointer.
 The mass is free to slide up and down on the mass shaft.
 It pulls on chord that passes around three pulleys.
 Main pulley is attached to the shaft carries indicating needle.

WORKING:
 When the mass moves, the main pulley receives a movement and that
causes the movement of the indicating needle.
 The mass is held in ‘1g’ position by the balance spring.
 Inside of the balance spring is attached to the shaft on which the
main pulley and the indicator are mounted.
 Needle indicates the accelerating loads on the aircraft structures in
terms of ‘g’ load.

NOTE:
 Modern type of accelerometer is equipped with 3 hands, the small
one measures continuous acceleration, the medium one for minimum
acceleration during flight, larger one for maximum acceleration
during flight.
 Meter is calibrated to read ‘1g’ level flight.
 Angle of bank increases, the load factor to sustain level flight
increases.

MACH METER
 A mach indicator provides a continuous indication of the ratio of an
aircraft’s airspeed to the local speed of sound at that particular
altitude and temperature existing at any time during flight.
 It expresses airspeed as Mach number by measuring and correlating
dynamic and static pressures.

CONSTRUCTION:
 Construction of mach meter is much the same as that of an airspeed
indicator.
 The instrument comprises two aneroid capsules enclosed in a sealed
case that is connected to the aircraft’s static pressure system.
 One aneroid is connected to the dynamic pressure source which
reacts to both dynamic and static pressure and therefore measures
airspeed, while the other is sealed and partly evacuated, which reacts
only to the static pressure and therefore measures altitude.
[Note-Mach number equals airspeed divided by speed of sound]
WORKING:
 A change in any sensed pressure causes appropriate expansion or
contraction in one or both capsules.
 The capsules are geared to a pointer on the face of the instrument.
 The pointer reacting to the expanding and contracting capsules
indicates the airspeed of the aircraft in which it is installed.
 The Mach meter shown in figure 12-20A is designed to operate in a
range of 0.3 to 1.0 Mach and at altitudes from zero to 50,000 feet.
 The Mach meter shown in figure 12-20B is designed to operate at a
range of 0.5 to 1.5 Mach and altitudes up to 50,000 feet.

GYROSCOPE

 The gyroscope is a rotor, or spinning wheel, rotating at high speed in

a universal mounting, called a GIMBAL, so its axle can be pointed in
any direction.
 The peculiar actions of a gyroscope, though they may appear to defy
physical laws, actually depend entirely upon Sir Isaac Newton’s laws
of motion.
 All of the practical applications of the gyroscope are based upon two
fundamental characteristics: gyroscopic inertia [rigidity in space] and
precession.
Gyroscopic inertia:
 It is the tendency of any rotating body, if undisturbed, to maintain its
plane of rotation.
 When the rotor is spinning about its axis A-B, the direction of this
axis will remain fixed in space, regardless of how the base of the
gyroscope is moved around it.
Precession:
 It is the tendency of a rotating body, when a force is applied
perpendicular to its plane of rotation, to turn in the direction of its
rotation 90 degrees to its axis and take up a new plane of rotation
parallel to the applied force.
The following is a simple illustration:
 Imagine a bicycle wheel spinning rapidly on a broom handle, which is
held horizontally in your hands.
 Attempt to push either end forward and one end will automatically
raise in your hand while the other will drop.
 A push applied in the direction of the arrow at G would cause the
rotor in its supporting ring to tend to rotate around the axis C-D.

GYRO INSTRUMENTS:
 Gyro instruments have made the art of piloting an aircraft more
precise.
 They are very useful in VFR flight. In instrument flight, they are
invaluable.
 In most general aviation aircrafts, there are three gyro instruments
namely;
1. The heading indicator.
2. The attitude indicator
3. The turn & slip indicator or turn & bank indicator.

THE HEADING INDICATOR:

 The heading indicator also known as the “Directional gyro” is an
instrument designed to indicate the heading of the aircraft and,
because it is steady and accurate, to enable the pilot to steer that
heading with the least effort.
The gyro wheel in the heading indicator is mounted vertically and spins
about its horizontal axis at approximately 12,000 rpm
 The spinning gyro wheel is mounted in an inner Gimbal ring that is
free to turn about the horizontal axis.
 The inner ring is, in turn, mounted inside an outer gimbal ring.
 The compass rose card on the face of the instrument is attached by
series of gears to the outer gimbal ring.
 As the aircraft turns, the compass card rotates indicating a turn to
the left or right.
 A heading indicator in common use today is shown in figure, the
compass rose card turns as the aircraft turns and the heading is read
opposite the nose of the aircraft pointer.
 As in the case of the compass, the figures are printed with the last 0
left off – 3 stands for 30‘, 12 for 120‘.

THE ATTITUDE INDICATOR:

 The attitude indicator also called the artificial horizon or the gyro
horizon provides the pilot with an artificial horizon as a means of
reference when the natural horizon cannot be seen because of cloud,
fog, rain or other obstructions to visibility.
 It shows the pilot the relationship between the wings and nose of the
aircraft and the horizon of the earth.
 In the attitude indicator, the gyro wheel is mounted horizontally and
spins about its vertical axis.
 It is mounted in a universal gimbal ring system, free about both the
pitching and rolling axes of the aircraft and is therefore able to
remain spinning in a horizontal plane parallel to the true horizon,
regardless of the rolling or pitching movements of the aircraft around
it.
 When the aircraft noses up, the gyro wheel remains horizontal. A
relative down force is exerted on the pivoted arm to which the horizon
bar is attached, causing the horizon bar to sink below the split bar.
 When the aircraft noses up, the miniature aircraft rises above the
horizon bar, indicating a nose high condition.
 When the aircraft noses down, the miniature aircraft sinks below the
horizon bar, indicating a nose down condition.
 When the aircraft banks, the miniature airplane banks on the horizon
bar and the pointer indicates the degree of bank on the index scale.
 When it is necessary to fly the aircraft slightly nose up or down,
according to altitude, power and load, the miniature airplane can be
adjusted to match the horizon bar by means of a knob at the bottom
of the case.

TURN & SLIP [OR] TURN & BANK INDICATOR:

 The turn & slip indicator combines two instruments in one and is
sometimes called the needle & ball.
 The needle indicates the direction & approximate rate of turn of the
aircraft.
 The ball indicates the amount of bank in the turn, that is, whether
there is any slipping or skidding in the turn.
 The ball is controlled by gravity and centrifugal force.
 It is simply an agate or steel ball in a liquid filled, curved glass tube.
 In a balanced turn, the ball will remain in the center as centrifugal
force offsets the pull of gravity.
 In a slip, there is not enough rate of turn for the amount of bank.
 The centrifugal force will be weak and this imbalance will be shown
by the ball falling down toward the inside of the turn.
 In a skid, the rate of turn is too high for the amount of bank.
 The centrifugal force is too strong and this imbalance is indicated by
the ball sliding toward the outside of the turn.
 The turn needle is actuated by a gyro wheel operated either
electrically or by a venturi tube or vacuum pump.
 The gyro wheel is mounted vertically and rotates about its horizontal
axis.
 The basic principle, which governs the operation of the turn needle, is
gyroscopic precession.
 The spinning gyro wheel, or rotor, is mounted in a gimbal ring.
 When the aircraft turns to the right or left, the gyro wheel precesses
about its turning axis and rolls the gimbal ring.
 The rolling motion of the gimbal ring in turn rotates the turn needle
on the face of the instrument.
 A spring returns the gyro to neutral when the aircraft ceases to turn.
 The turn indicator indicates the rate of the turn, not the amount of
the turn.
 Thus a standard rate, or rate one, turn will give a rate of turn of 3‘
per second, or 360‘ in two minutes.
 The instrument is usually calibrated to indicate a rate one turn when
the turn needle is centered on one of the indexes seen either side of
the center index.
1. In a straight & level flight, the ball and needle are both centered.
2. In a correctly banked turn, the needle indicates the rate of turn,
the forces acting on the ball cause it to remain centered.
3. If one wing is permitted to drop, the ball will roll towards the side
of the low wing, the needle shows the aircraft to be flying straight,
but the ball indicates it to be right wing low.
4. If the aircraft is not sufficiently banked in a turn, a skid towards
the outside of the turn will occur, the needle indicates a left turn,
the ball a right skid outwards.
5. When the aircraft is over banked in a turn, it will sideslip inwards.
The needle indicates a left turn, the ball a sideslip inwards.

ENGINE INSTRUMENTS
TACHOMETER [RPM measuring instrument]
 The Tachometer or rpm indicator is a device, which shows the speed
of the crankshaft in case of a reciprocating engine & speed of the
main rotor assembly in a gas turbine engine.
 The instrument usually comprises a recording mechanism that keeps
an accurate record of the engine hours.
 Tachometers are of many types, the more common being
1. Mechanical, either centrifugal or magnetic.
2. Electrical, either DC or AC.
 The dials of the tachometer used in the reciprocating engines are
calibrated in rpm, and those used with the turbine engines are
calibrated in percentage of rpm.

MECHANICALLY OPERATED SYSTEM:

CENTRIFUGAL OPERATION:

 Mechanical indicating systems consist of an indicator connected to

the engine by a flexible drive shaft.
 The indicator contains a flyweight assembly coupled to a gear
mechanism that drives a pointer. [Centrifugally operated]
 As the drive shaft rotates, centrifugal force acts on the flyweight
assembly and moves them to an angular position.
 This angular position varies with the rpm of the engine.
 Movement of the flyweights is transmitted through the gear
mechanism to the pointer.
 The pointer rotates to indicate the rpm of the engine on the
tachometer indicator.

MAGNETIC SYSTEM

 The alternator, or transmitter, consists of a four-pole permanent

magnet that rotates inside a stator.
 The stator of the alternator is connected by three wires to the
synchronous motor, which operates the indicator.
 As the engine drives the alternator, the rotation of the permanent
magnet induces current in the stator.
 This current flows through the stator of the synchronous motor in the
indicator and produces a rotating field that turns at the same rate as
the alternator rotor.
 The permanent-magnet rotor of the indicator keeps itself aligned with
the rotating field and hence must also turn at the rate of the
alternator motor.
 The synchronous motor in the indicator is directly coupled to a
cylindrical permanent magnet that rotates inside a drag cup.
 As this magnet turns, it causes drag cup to rotate and the drag cup
causes the balancing hairspring to turn the pointer on the dial.
ELECTRICALLY OPERATED:

 A number of different types and sizes of tachometer generators &

indicators are used in aircraft electrical tachometer systems.
 Generally, the various types of tachometer systems operate in the
same basic principle.
 Thus, the system described will be representative of the most
electrical tachometer systems.
 The manufacturer’s instructions should always be consulted for
details of a specific tachometer system.
 The typical tachometer system coupled to the aircraft engine, and
connected electrically to an indicator mounted on the instrument
panel.
 A current-carrying cable connects these two units.
 The generator transmits power to the synchronous motor in the
indicator.
 The frequency of the transmitted power is proportional to the engine
speed.
 Through use of magnetic drag principle, the indicator furnishes an
accurate indication of engine speed.

TEMPERATURE GUAGES:
 Various temperature gauges must be known in order for an aircraft to
be operated properly.
 It is important that the temperature of the engine oil, carburetor
mixture, inlet air, free air, engine cylinders, heater ducts and exhaust
gas temperature of turbine engines be known.
 Many other temperatures must also be known, but these are some of
the more important.
 Different types of thermometers are used to collect the information.
THE OIL TEMPERATURE GUAGE:
 The oil temperature gauge is normally located beside the oil pressure
gauge.
 It gives a reading of the temperature of the oil in degrees Fahrenheit
or Celsius.
 There is an intimate relationship between the oil temperature and oil
pressure, due to changes in viscosity of oil which temperature change
affect.
 In starting the engines with cold oil, when the pressure gauge reads
high, the oil temperature gauge will read correspondingly low.
 As the oil warms up, both instruments will approach their normal
reading at about the same rate.
 An abnormal drop in oil pressure and coincident rise in oil
temperature is a sure sign of trouble.
 However, even when the pressure shows no marked rise or fall,
increasing oil temperature is a warning of excessive friction or
overload in the engine.

THE CARBURETOR AIR TEMPERATURE GAUGE:

 The carburetor air temperature gauge may be installed to indicate the
temperature of the mixture entering the manifold, or it may record
the temperature of the intake air entering the carburetor.
 Its purpose is to enable the pilot to maintain a temperature that will
assure maximum operating efficiency and warn him of icing
conditions in the carburetor that may lead to engine failure.
 The carburetor air temperature gauge is, of course, the pilot’s guide
to the operation of the carburetor air heat control unit.
 Hot air is selected ON or OFF to keep the mixture temperature, or
intake air temperature, within the recommended limits.
 If the instrument is installed to record the mixture temperature, this
should be maintained at around 4‘C to 7‘C.
 If it is to record the intake air temperature, this should be maintained
at about 29‘C to 32‘C when icing condition exists.
THE CYLINDER HEAD TEMPERATURE GAUGE:

 The cylinder head temperature gauge records the temperature of one

[or more] of the engine cylinder heads.
 The instrument gives reasonably good indication of the effectiveness
of the engine cooling system.
 It should be monitored frequently during steep climbs to ensure
sufficient cooling air is reaching the engine.
 Extremely high cylinder head temperatures are an immediate sign of
engine overloading.
 High head temperatures decrease the strength of metals and result in
detonation, pre-ignition and eventual engine failure.
 When operating the engine on lean mixture, the maximum cylinder
head temperature permissible is lower than that permitted when
operating on rich mixture.
 The engine manufacturer’s recommended limits should be strictly
observed.

THE OUTSIDE AIR TEMPERATURE GAUGE:

 The outside air temperature OAT gauge records the ambient air
temperature, that is, the temperature of the free air surrounding the
aircraft.
 To ensure that the temperature recorded is true, the element is
shielded from the sun’s radiation and located in a portion of the
airflow that is relatively undisturbed.
 The temperature recorded by the gauge is not, however, entirely
accurate.
 The dynamic pressure of the ram air causes a slight increase in
temperature above that of the ambient air.
 The indicated temperature, therefore, must be corrected to get true
air temperature. TAT.
 Knowledge of the true air temperature enables the pilot to select the
proper manifold pressure, to calculate the true airspeed and altitude
and warns of conditions that may cause ice formation.
 At low speeds, the increase in heat is insignificant, about 1‘C at 90
knots.
 With increasing speed, the temperature rise reaches 4‘C at 175 knots
and 30‘C at 500 knots.

AIRCRAFT PRESSURE GAUGES

 Pressure gauges are used to indicate the pressure at which the
engine oil is forced through the bearings, oil passages, and moving
parts of the engine and the pressure at which fuel is delivered to the
carburetor or fuel control.
 They are also used to measure the pressure of air in de-icer systems
and gyroscopic drives, of fuel/air mixtures in the intake manifold,
and of liquid or gases in several other systems.
Different types pressure gauges used are;
1. Hydraulic pressure gauges.
2. Vacuum pressure gauges.
3. Diaphragm type pressure gauges.
4. Bourdon tube pressure gauges

BOURDON TUBE PRESSURE GAUGE:

 Bourdon tube pressure gauge is used for measuring high as well as
low pressures.
 A simple form of this gauge is shown in the figure.
 In this case, the pressure element consists of a metal tube of
approximately elliptical cross section.
 This tube is bent in the form of a segment of a circle and responds to
the pressure changes.
 When one end of the tube, which is attached to the gauge case, is
connected to the source of pressure, the internal pressure causes the
tube to expand.
 By circumferential stress, that is, Hoop tension is set up.
 The free end of the tube moves and is in connection with suitable
layers of rack, which engages with a small pinion mounted on the
same spindle as the pointer.
 Thus the pressure applied to the causes the rack and the pinion to
move. The pointer indicates the pressure over a dial, which can be
graduated in a suitable scale.
DIAPHRAGM TYPE PRESSURE GAUGE:
 This type of gauge employs a metallic disc or diaphragm instead of a
bent tube.
 This disc or diaphragm is used for actuating the indicating device.
 When pressure is applied on the lower side of the diaphragm it is
deflected upward.
 This movement of the diaphragm is transmitted to the rack & pinion.
 The latter is attached to the spindle of needle moving on a graduated
dial.
 The dial can again be graduated in a suitable scale.

VACUUM TYPE PRESSURE GAUGES:

 Bourdon gauges discussed earlier can be used to measure vacuum
instead of pressure.
 Slight changes in the design are required in this purpose.
 Thus in this case, the tube is bent inward instead of outward as in
the pressure gauges.
 Vacuum gauges are graduated in millimeters of mercury below
atmospheric pressure.
 In such cases, therefore, absolute pressure in millimeters of mercury
is the difference between barometer reading and vacuum gauge
reading.
 Vacuum gauges are used to measure the vacuum in the condensers
etc.
 If there is leakage, the vacuum will drop.

AIRSPEED DEFINITIONS:
INDICATED AIRSPEED;
 IAS is the uncorrected speed read from the airspeed dial. It is the
measurement of the difference between the total pressure and the
atmospheric pressure in the pitot static system. [That is, the pitot
pressure which is the sum of the atmospheric pressure and the
dynamic pressure].

CALIBRATED AIRSPEED;
 CAS is the indicated airspeed corrected for instrument error and
installation error in the pitot- static system. As the aircraft flight
attitude or configuration is changed the airflow in the vicinity of
the static pressure sources may introduce impact pressure into the
static source, which results in erroneous airspeed indications. The
pitot section of the system is subject to error at high angles of
attack, since the impact pressure entering the system is reduced
 when the pitot pressure source is not parallel to the relative
airflow. Performance data in the aircraft flight manuals is normally
based on calibrated airspeed.

EQUIVALENT AIRSPEED;
 EAS is calibrated airspeed corrected for compressibility factor. This
value is very significant to pilots of high-speed aircraft, but
relatively unimportant to pilots operating at speeds below 250
knots at altitudes below 10,000 feet.

TRUE AIRSPEED;
 EAS is calibrated [or equivalent airspeed] corrected for the airspeed
indicator error due to density and temperature. TAS is the actual
speed of the airspeed of the aircraft through the air mass.

AUTOMATIC DIRECTION FINDER [ADF]

 The automatic direction finder is a very useful aid to aerial
navigation.
 It can be used for homing to or finding direction from any station
that broadcasts in the low and medium frequency radio bands.
 Aviation installations that operate in the low frequent band include
non-directional beacons and NDBs co-located with ILS localizers.
 The ADF is also able to receive commercial AM broadcasting
stations and home on them.

ADF EQUIPMENT:
 The ADF system consists of an ADF receiver, a loop antenna, a
sense antenna and a bearing indicator.

HORIZONTAL SITUATION INDICATOR [HSI]

 The horizontal situation indicator, also known as the navigation
situation display or the pictorial navigation indicator, is an
instrument that combines the display of a heading indicator with
the display of the omni indicator.
 It was developed to make the pilot’s job simpler, eliminating the
need to compare the displays of several instruments, to mentally
calculate heading changes and to continuously scan and cross
check.
 The instrument enables the pilot to visualize the aircraft’s position
with reference to the selected radial by giving current heading,
selected course, course deviation, station position and, when on an
instrument approach, position relative to the glide slope and
localizer.