Opto & Optical Com

Optoelectronics & Optical Communication
(TEL 422 & TEL 474) by
C. K. Nyakey
Opto & Optical Communication
Objectives
To introduce to students
fundamentals of optoelectronics, fiber optics, electro-optical components and design of optical communication links.
Course Code: TEL 422 & TEL 474
Pre-requisite: Electromagnetic Theory
Credit Hours: 3
Assessment
Lab: 10%
Test/Quiz/Assignments/Mid-sem: 20% Final Examination: 70%
Course Outline
Introduction Mode theory for optical fiber waveguide Transmission characteristics of optical fibers Optical cables, joints and couplers Optical sources Optical detector Receiver Performance Considerations Optical Amplification Integrated Optics Optical fiber communication systems
Literature
John. M. Senior, "Optical Fibre Communications: Principles and Practice, Practice Prentice Hall, 2nd Edition, 1993. Henry Zanger and Cynthia Zanger, "Fiber Optics: Communications and Other Applications", Booknews Inc., 1990. Applications"
OFFICE LOCATION
HOSTEL BLK C ROOM 52
OFFICE HOURS
THURSDAYS: 9 AM 3 PM
Chapter one: Overview

Introduction Historical development of optical fibers The general system Comparisons between optical communication and classical communication.
Introduction
Communication may be broadly defined as the transfer of information from one point to another. communication may be achieved using an electromagnetic carrier which is selected from the optical range of frequencies. An optical fiber (or fibre is a glass or fibre) plastic fiber designed to guide light along its length.
Introduction
Fiber Optics is the overlap of applied science and engineering concerned with the design and application of optical fibers In other words, Fiber Optics is the branch of optical technology concerned with the transmission of radiant power (light energy) through fibers Fibers are used instead of metal wires because signals travel along them with less loss, and they are immune to electromagnetic interference.
Evolution of optical fiber

1880 Alexander Graham Bell 1960 Laser first used as light source 1965 High loss of light discovered 1970s Refining of manufacturing process 1980s OF technology becomes backbone of long distance telephone networks in NA.
Electromagnetic Spectrum
The General System

An optical fiber communication system is similar in basic concept to any type of communication
A general communication system

Optical fiber communication system
Optical fiber communication system
A digital optical link

Advantages of optical fiber

Enormous potential bandwidth Small size & weight Electrical isolation Immunity to interference & cross-talk Signal security Low transmission loss Ruggedness & flexibility Syetem reliability & ease of maintenance Potential low cost

Enormous potential bandwidth (Gbps) Thousands of channels can be multiplexed together over one strand of fiber. Small Size & weight - Lighter and more compact than copper. Electrical isolation optical fibers are electrical insulators. Immunity to Noise - Immune to electromagnetic interference (EMI). High Security - Impossible to tap into.

Less Loss - Repeaters can be spaced 75 miles apart (fibers can be made to have only 0.2 dB/km of attenuation) Reliability - More resilient than copper in extreme environmental conditions. Flexibility - Unlike impure, brittle glass, fiber is physically very flexible.
Disadvantages of optical fiber

The cost of interfacing equipment necessary to convert electrical signals to optical signals. (optical transmitters, receivers) Splicing fiber optic cable is also more difficult. Expensive over short distance requires highly skilled installers adding additional nodes is difficult
Areas of Application
Telecommunications Local Area Networks Cable TV CCTV Optical Fiber Sensors
Chapter two: Overview

Transmission of light through optical fiber Basic structure of an optical fiber Ray theory Mode theory Types of optical fiber
Transmission Of Light Through Optical Fibers

Fiber optics deals with the transmission of light energy through transparent fibers How an optical fiber guides light depends on the nature of the light and the structure of the optical fiber A light wave is a form of EM energy that is moved by wave motion Wave motion can be defined as a recurring disturbance advancing through space with or without the use of a physical medium
Transmission Of Light Through Optical Fibers

In fiber optics, wave motion is the movement of light energy through an optical fiber Two methods are used to describe how light is transmitted along the optical fiber
ray theory mode theory
ray theory uses the concepts of light theory, reflection and refraction mode theory treats light as theory, electromagnetic waves
Basic Optical-material Properties

The basic optical property of a material, relevant to optical fibers, is the index of refraction The index of refraction of a material is the ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum to the speed of light in the material itself The index of refraction is given by:
Basic Optical-material Properties
A light ray is reflected and refracted when it encounters the boundary between two different transparent mediums
Snells law
Example
Let medium 1 be glass ( n1 = 1.5 ) and medium 2 by ethyl alcohol (n2 = 1.36 ). For an angle of incidence of 30, determine the angle of refraction.
Answer: 33.47
Snells law
Total internal reflection in fiber
Critical angle, c
The minimum angle of incidence at which a light ray ay strike the interface of two media and result in an angle of refraction of 90 or greater.
Basic Structure of an Optical Fiber

Core thin glass center of the fiber where light travels Cladding outer optical material surrounding the core Buffer coating plastic coating that protects the fiber
Optical fiber
The core, and the lower-refractive-index cladding, are typically made of high-quality silica glass, though they can both be made of plastic as well.
plastic jacket glass or plastic cladding fiber core
Optical fiber cable
Ray theory
The advantage of the ray approach is that you get a clearer picture of the propagation of light along a fiber Two types of rays can propagate along an optical fiber
Meridional rays Skew rays
Meridional rays are rays that pass through the axis of the optical fiber Skew rays are rays that travel through an optical fiber without passing through its axis
Ray theory
Meridional rays can be classified as bound or unbound rays Bound rays remain in the core and propagate along the axis of the fiber Bound rays propagate through the fiber by total internal reflection. Unbound rays are refracted out of the fiber core
How a light ray enters an optical fiber
Acceptance Angle ( a)
The acceptance angle ( a) is the maximum angle to the axis of the fiber that light entering the fiber is propagated in (max) = sin-1
Numerical aperture
Used to describe the light-gathering or light-collecting ability of an optical fiber.
In optics, the numerical aperture (NA) of an optical system is a dimensionless number that characterizes the range of angles over which the system can accept or emit light
Numerical aperture
The numerical aperture in respect to a point F depends on the half-angle of the maximum cone of light that can enter or exit the lens
Numerical Aperture (NA)

The NA may also be given in terms of the relative refractive index difference between the core and the cladding which is defined as:
Example
A silica optical fiber with a core diameter large enough to be considered by ray theory analysis has a core refractive index of 1.50 and a cladding refractive index of 1.47. Determine a) The critical angle at the core-cladding interface b) The NA for the fiber c) The acceptance angle in air for the fiber
Skew rays
Skew rays propagate without passing through the center axis of the fiber.
Skew rays
The acceptance angle for skew rays is larger than the acceptance angle of meridional rays Skew rays are often used in the calculation of light acceptance in an optical fiber The addition of skew rays increases the amount of light capacity of a fiber. A large portion of the number of skew rays that are trapped in the fiber core are considered to be leaky rays
Mode theory
The mode theory is used to describe the properties of light that ray theory is unable to explain The mode theory uses electromagnetic wave behavior to describe the propagation of light along a fiber A set of guided electromagnetic waves is called the modes of the fiber The mode theory suggests that a light wave can be represented as a plane wave
Mode theory
The wavelength ( ) of the plane wave is given by:
Mode theory
Wavefront propagation along an optical fiber

Mode theory
The plane waves repeat at a distance equal to sin Plane waves also repeat at a periodic frequency =2 sin / The quantity is defined as the propagation constant (lossless line) along the fiber axis The wavelength at which a mode ceases to be bound is called the cutoff wavelength for that mode
Mode theory
an optical fiber is always able to propagate at least one mode The wavelength that prevents the next higher mode from propagating is called the cutoff wavelength of the fiber An optical fiber that operates above the cutoff wavelength (at a longer wavelength) is called a single mode fiber An optical fiber that operates below the cutoff wavelength is called a multimode fiber
Mode theory
Leaky modes lose power as they propagate along the fiber A mode remains bound if the propagation constant meets the following boundary condition:
Types of optical fiber

Optical fibers are characterized by their structure and by their properties of transmission Basically, optical fibers are classified into two types
single mode fibers multimode fibers
optical fibers are classified by the number of modes that propagate along the fiber
Single-mode fiber
The core size of single mode fibers is small (8-10 micrometers) Single mode fibers propagate only one mode (fundamental mode) Single mode fibers have a lower signal loss Higher information capacity (bandwidth) than multimode fibers Low fiber dispersion used in telephone and cable TV
Multimode fibers
multimode fibers propagate more than one mode The number of modes propagated depends on the core size and numerical aperture (NA) fiber core size and NA are 50 to 100 micrometer ( m) and 0.20 to 0.29, respectively. Light is launched into a multimode fiber with more ease
Multimode fibers
The higher NA and the larger core size make it easier to make fiber connections multimode fibers permit the use of lightemitting diodes (LEDs) LEDs are cheaper, less complex, and last longer Modal dispersion occurs
Step Index and Graded Index Fiber

An optical fiber's refractive index profile and core size further distinguish single mode and multimode fibers The refractive index profile describes the value of refractive index as a function of radial distance at any fiber diameter Fiber refractive index profiles classify single mode and multimode fibers as follows:

Multimode step-index fibers Multimode graded-index fibers Single mode step-index fibers Single mode graded-index fibers

In a step-index fiber, the refractive index of stepthe core is uniform and undergoes an abrupt change at the core-cladding boundary Step-index fibers obtain their name from this abrupt change called the step change in refractive index In graded-index fibers, the refractive index of the core varies gradually as a function of radial distance from the fiber center
Chapter three: Overview

Properties of optical fiber transmission
Attenuation
Dispersion
Properties of optical fiber transmission

system performance deals with signal loss and bandwidth Signal loss and system bandwidth describe the amount of data transmitted over a specified length of fiber Many optical fiber properties increase signal loss and reduce system bandwidth The most important properties that affect system performance are fiber attenuation and dispersion
Attenuation
Attenuation is the loss of optical power as light travels along the fiber Attenuation reduces the amount of optical power transmitted by the fiber Attenuation controls the distance an optical signal (pulse) can travel Once the power of an optical pulse is reduced to a point where the receiver is unable to detect the pulse, an error occurs
attenuation
Attenuation
Signal attenuation is defined as the ratio of optical input power (Pi) to the optical output power (Po)
The following equation defines signal attenuation as a unit of length:
Attenuation
Attenuation is caused by
Absorption Scattering bending losses
Absorption
Absorption is defined as the portion of attenuation resulting from the conversion of optical power into another energy form, such as heat Absorption in optical fibers is explained by three factors:
Imperfections in the atomic structure of the fiber material The intrinsic or basic fiber-material properties The extrinsic (presence of impurities) fibermaterial properties
Scattering
scattering losses are caused by the interaction of light with density fluctuations within a fiber It is also caused from structural inhomogeneities or defects occurring during fiber manufacture
Bending loss Bending loss is classified according to the bend radius of curvature:
microbend loss macrobend loss
Microbends are small microscopic bends of the fiber axis that occur mainly when a fiber is cabled Macrobends are bends having a large radius of curvature relative to the fiber diameter
Example
When the mean power launched into an 8 km length of fiber is 120 W, the mean optical power at the fiber output is 3 W. Determine The overal signal attenuation or loss in decibels through the fiber assuming there are no splices The signal attenuation per kilometer of the fiber The overal signal attenuation for a 10 km optical link using the same fiber with splices at 1 km intervals each giving an attenuation of 1 dB The numerical input/output power ratio in (c)
a) b) c)
d)
Dispersion
Dispersion spreads the optical pulse as it travels along the fiber. This spreading of the signal pulse reduces the system bandwidth or the informationcarrying capacity of the fiber. Dispersion limits how fast information is transferred An error occurs when the receiver is unable to distinguish between input pulses caused by the spreading of each pulse
Dispersion
Dispersion
There are two different types of dispersion in optical fibers:
intramodal or chromatic dispersion intermodal or modal dispersion
Each type of dispersion mechanism leads to pulse spreading The spreading of the optical pulse as it travels along the fiber limits the information capacity of the fiber
Intramodal dispersion
Intramodal or chromatic dispersion depends primarily on fiber materials There are two types of intramodal dispersion.
material dispersion waveguide dispersion
Intramodal dispersion occurs because different colors of light travel through different materials and different waveguide structures at different speeds
Material dispersion
It occurs because the spreading of a light pulse is dependent on the wavelengths' interaction with the refractive index of the fiber core Different wavelengths travel at different speeds in the fiber material Different wavelengths of a light pulse that enter a fiber at one time exit the fiber at different times
Material dispersion
Material dispersion is a function of the source spectral width The spectral width specifies the range of wavelengths that can propagate in the fiber Material dispersion is less at longer wavelengths
Waveguide dispersion
It occurs because the mode propagation constant ( ) is a function of the size of the fiber's core relative to the wavelength of operation Waveguide dispersion also occurs because light propagates differently in the core than in the cladding Multimode waveguide dispersion is generally small compared to material dispersion
Intermodal Dispersion
It occurs because each mode travels a different distance over the same time span It causes the input light pulse to spread The pulse spreads because each mode propagates along the fiber at different speeds. Since modes As the length of the fiber increases, modal dispersion increases
Intermodal dispersion
Polarization Mode dispersion (PMD)

It is a form of modal dispersion where two different polarizations of light in a waveguide, which normally travel at the same speed, travel at different speeds due to random imperfections and asymmetries, causing random spreading of optical pulses It limits the rate at which data can be transmitted over a fiber
Compensating for PMD

A PMD compensation system is a device which uses a polarization controller to compensate for PMD in fibers Another alternative would be to use a polarisation maintaining fiber (PM fiber), a fiber whose symmetry is so strongly broken (e.g. a highly elliptical core) that an input polarization along a principal axis is maintained all the way to the output
Classwork
Light traveling in air strikes a glass plate at an angle 1=33 , where 1 is measured between the incoming ray and the glass surface. Upon striking the glass part of the beam is reflected and part is refracted. If the refracted and reflected beams make an angle of 90 with each other , what is the refractive index of the glass? What is the critical angle for this glass? Calculate the NA of a step-index fiber having n1 =1.48 and n2 =1.46. What is the maximum entrance angle max for this fiber if th outer medium is air with n=1?
Classwork
A ray enters an optical fiber at an angle of incidence of 15 as shown below:
Calculate the angle of refraction in the core.

Classwork
A ray of light in glass makes an angle of incidence of 50 with a glass-water boundary. a) What angle of refraction does the light make in the water b) What is the critical angle for this glasswater boundary (refractive index of glass is 1.54 and refractive index of water is 1.33)
Classwork
Calculate the numerical apertures of; a) a plastic step-index fiber having a core refractive index of n1 = 1.60 and a cladding index n2 = 1.49 b) a step-index fiber having a silica core (n1= 1.458) and a silicone resin cladding (n2 = 1.405)
Classwork
A continuous 12-km-length optical fiber link has a loss of 1.5 dB/km. a) What is the minimum optical power level that must be launched into the fiber to maintain an optical power level of 3 W at the receiving end? b) What is the required input power if the fiber has a loss of 2.5 dB/km?
Chapter four: Overview

Preparation of Optical fiber Cable design Optical fiber connections Fiber splices Fiber connectors
Preparation of optical fiber

The production, application and installation of optical fibers are of paramount importance It is essential that:
Optical fibers are produced with good transmission characteristic at minimum cost and maximum reproducibility A range of optical fiber types be available The fibers may be converted into practical cables The fibers and fiber cables may be terminated and connected together (jointed)

variation of refractive index inside the optical fiber is a fundamental necessity in the fabrication of fibers Two different materials which are transparent to light over the operating wavelength range (0.8-1.6 m) are required
glasses (or glass-like materials) monocrystalline structures (certain plastics)

These two materials should have mutual solubility over a relatively wide range of concentrations Glasses or glass-like materials are suitable for graded index fibers whereas monocrystalline materials are suitable for step index fibers Plastic clad and all plastic fibers find some use in short-haul, low bandwidth applications

Two processes are involved in the production of glass fibers:
Pure glass is produced and converted into preform or rod Drawing or pulling techniques
There are two methods for preparing glass optical fibers:

Liquid phase (Melting) methods Vapor phase deposition
Liquid phase (melting) techniques

The first stage is the preparation of ultra pure material powders which are usually oxides or carbonate of the required constituents These include oxides such as: SiO2, GeO2, B2O2 and Al2O2, carbonates such as: Na2CO3, K2CO3, CaCO3 and BaCO3

Very high purification is needed:
Filtration Coprecipitation Solvent extraction Recrystallization Drying in a vacuum

Glassmaking furnace for the production of high purity glasses

The next stage is the melting stage (temp 900-1300 :
Homogeneous and bubble-free multicomponent glass is formed
A refractive index variation may be achieved by:

a change in the composition of the various constituents ion exchange

Silica and platinum crucibles are used Contamination can arise during melting from several sources including the furnace environment and the crucible Platinum crucible gives high impurity at high temperatures over long periods Silica crucibles can give dissolution into the melt which may introduce inhomogeneities into the glass especially at high melting temperatures

A technique for avoiding this involves melting the glass directly into a radiofrequency (RF approximately 5 MHz) induction furnace while cooling the silica by gas or water flow The materials are preheated to around 1000 The melt is also protected from any impurities in the crucible by a thin layer of solidified pure glass In both techniques the glass is homogenized and dried by bubbling pure gasses through the melt

High purity glass melting using a radiofrequency induction furnace
Fiber drawing
The traditional technique for producing fine optical fiber waveguards is to make a preform using the rod in tube process A rod of core glass is inserted into a tube of cladding glass and the preform is drawn in a vertical muffle furnace This technique is useful for the production of step index fibers with large core and cladding diameters
Fiber drawing
Optical fiber from a preform
Fiber drawing
The stratified melt process is another technique used for large core diameter step index fiber production This process involves pouring a layer of cladding glass over the core glass in a platinum crucible A bait glass rod is dipped into the molten combination and slowly withdrawn giving a composite core-clad preform which may be then drawn into a fiber.
Fiber drawing
The stratified melt process (glass on glass technique)
Fiber drawing
Double crucible method is used in drawing of graded index fibers in the case of liquid phase techniques In this method the core and cladding glass in the form of separated rods is fed into two concentric platinum crucibles The assembly is usually located in a muffle furnace capable of heating the crucible contents to a temperature of between 800 and 1200
Fiber drawing
The double crucible method for fiber drawing
Fiber drawing
The crucibles have nozzles in their bases from which the clad fiber is drawn directly from the melt Index grading may be achieved through the diffusion of mobile ions across the corecladding interface within the molten glass Graded index fibers produced by this technique are substantially less dispersive than step index fibers
Fiber drawing
Pulse dispersion of 1-6 ns km-1 is quite typical, depending on the material system used Liquid phase techniques have the inherent disadvantage of obtaining and maintaining extremely pure glass which limits their ability to produced low loss fibers The advantage of these techniques is in the possibility of continuous production (both melting and drawing) of optical fibers
Fiber drawing
Vapor Phase Deposition Techniques

Vapor phase deposition techniques are used to produce silica-rich glasses of the highest transparency and with the optimal optical properties The starting materials are volatile compounds such as SiCl4, GeCl4, SiF4, BCl3, O2, BBr3 and POCl3 Refractive index modification is achieved through the formation of dopants from the nonsilica starting materials

These vapor phase dopants include TiO2, GeO2, P2O5, Al2O3, B2O3 and F Variation in the refractive index of silica using these dopants

The process involves:
Combining gaseous mixtures of silica-containing compound, doping material and oxygen in a vapor phase oxidation reaction where deposition of oxides occur The deposition is usually onto a substrate or within a hollow tube and is built up as a stack of successive layers The dopant concentration may be varied gradually to produce a graded index profile or maintained to give a step index profile

The process involves:
In the case of the substrate this directly results in a solid rod or preform In the case of the hollow tube, it must be collapsed to give a solid preform from which the fiber may be drawn
The major techniques used in vapor phase deposition are illustrated below These vapor phase deposition techniques fall into two broad categories: flame hydrolysis and chemical vapor deposition (CVD) methods
Presentation topics
Vapor axial deposition method (VAD) Outside Vapor Phase Oxidation Process (OVPO) Modified Chemical Vapor Deposition (MCVD) Plasma-activated Chemical Vapor Deposition (PCVD)
Cable design
Cable design can be summarized into the categories of fiber buffering, cable structural and strength members, and cable sheath and water barrier Fiber buffering
Fibers are given a primary coating during production in order to prevent abrasion of the glass surface and subsequent flaws in the material The primary coated fiber is given a secondary or buffer coating (jacket) to provide protection against external mechanical and environmental influences
Fiber buffering
The buffer jacket is designed to protect the fiber from microbending losses The buffer jacket generally fall into three distinct types:
A tight buffer jacket a loose buffer jacket filled loose jacket
Fiber buffering
Techniques for buffering of optical fibers
Cable Structural and Strength Members

One or more structural member is usually included in the optical fiber cable to serve as a core foundation around which the buffered fibers may be wrapped or into which they may be slotted The structural member may also be a strength member if it consists of suitable material (i.e. solid or stranded steel wire or Kevlar yarns)

Structural and strength members in optical fiber cables

Structural members may be nonmetallic with plastics, fiberglass and Kevlar often being used For strength members, the preferred features include a high Youngs modulus, high strain capability, flexibility and low weight per unit length
Cable Sheath and Water Barrier

The outer plastic sheath reduces abrasion and provide the cable with extra protection against external mechanical effects such as crushing The cable sheath is said to contain the cable core and may vary in complexity from a single extruded plastic jacket to a multilayer structure comprising two or more jackets with intermediate armoring

The plastic sheath material (e.g. polyethylene, polyurethane) tends to give very limited protection against the penetration of water into the cable Hence an additional water barrier is usually incorporated This may take the form of an axially laid aluminum foil/polyethylene laminated film immediately inside the sheath

Alternatively the ingress of water may be prevented by filling the spaces in the cable with moisture-resistant compounds Specially formulated silicon rubber or petroleum-based compounds are often used These filling compounds are also easily removed from the cable and provide protection from corrosion for any metallic strength members within the fiber
Optical fiber cable
Optical Fiber Connection

Optical fiber links, in common with any line communication system, have a requirement for both jointing and termination of the transmission medium The number of intermediate fiber connections or joints is dependent:
upon the link length (between repeaters), the continuous length of fiber cable and the length of fiber cable that may be practically or conveniently installed as a continuous section on the link

The two major categories of fiber joint currently both in use and development are:
Fiber splices Demountable fiber connectors or simply connectors
Fibers must be joined when:

You need more length than you can get on a single roll Connecting distribution cable to backbone Connecting to electronic source and transmitter Repairing a broken cable

A major consideration with all types of fiber-fiber connection is the optical loss encountered at the interface The optical loss is divided into:
Intrinsic loss Extrinsic loss
Intrinsic optical loss

Problems the splicer cannot fix
Core diameter mismatch Concentricity of fiber core or connector ferrules Core ellipticity Numerical Aperture mismatch
Extrinsic optical loss

Problems the person doing the splicing can avoid
Misalignment Bad cleaves Air gaps Contamination: Dirt, dust, oil, etc. Reflectance

Fresnel reflection
It is associated with the step changes in refractive index at the jointed interface (i.e. glass-air-glass) The magnitude of fresnel reflection is given by:
Fresnel reflection
The loss in decibels due to Fresnel reflection at a single interface is given by
The effect of Fresnel reflection at a fiberfiber connection can be reduced to a very low level through the use of an index matching fluid in the gap between the jointed fibers

Unfortunately Fresnel reflection is only one possible source of optical loss at a fiber joint A potentially greater source of loss at a fiber-fiber connection is caused by misalignment of the two jointed fibers
Example
An optical fiber has a core refractive index of 1.5. Two lengths of the fiber with smooth and perpendicular(to the core axes) end faces are butted together. Assuming the fiber axes are perfectly aligned, calculate the optical loss in decibel at the joint (due to Fresnel reflection) when there us a small air gap between the fiber end faces
Fiber Alignment and Joint Loss

Any deviation in the geometry and optical parameters of the two optical fibers which are jointed will affect the optical attenuation (insertion loss) through the connection There are inherent connection problems when jointing fibers with, for instance:
Different core and/or cladding diameters; Different numerical apertures and /or relative refractive index differences; Different refractive index profiles; Fiber faults (core ellipticity, core concentricity, etc)

The best results are therefore achieved with compatible (same) fibers which are manufactured to the lowest tolerance In this case there is still the problem of the quality of the fiber alignment provided by the jointing mechanism
The three possible types of misalignment which occur when jointing compatible optical fibers: (a) longitudinal misalignment; (b) lateral misalignment; (c) angular misalignment

Optical losses resulting from these three types of misalignment depend upon:
the fiber, core diameter and the distribution of the optical power between the propagating modes
Fiber Splices
A permanent joint formed between two individual optical fibers in the field or factory is known as a fiber splice It is used for long-haul optical fiber links Splices may be divided into two broad categories depending upon the splicing technique utilized
Fusion splicing or welding Mechanical splicing
Fiber Splices
Fusion splicing is accomplished by applying localized heating (e.g. by a flame or an electric arc) at the interface between two butted, prealigned fiber ends In Mechanical splicing the fibers are held in splicing, alignment by some mechanical means The mechanical means, may be achieved by various methods including:
tube splices groove splices
Fiber Splices
All these techniques seek to optimize the splice performance (i.e. reduce the insertion loss at the joint) through both fiber end preparation and alignment of the two jointed fibers Insertion losses of fiber splices are generally much less than the possible Fresnel reflection loss at a butted fiber-fiber joint
Fiber Splices
Fiber splicing (especially fusion splicing) is at present a somewhat difficult process to perform in a field environment and suffers from practical problems in the development of field-usable tools A requirement with fibers intended for splicing is that they have smooth and square end faces
Scribe and break or score and break process

It involves the scoring of the fiber surface under tension with a cutting tool (e.g. sapphire, diamond, tungsten carbide blade)
Fusion Splices
The fusion splicing of single fibers involves the heating of the two prepared fiber ends to their fusing point with the application of sufficient axial pressure between the two optical fibers The fibers are usually positioned and clamped with the aid of an inspection microscope
Fusion Splices
Flame heating sources such as microplasma torches (argon and hydrogen) and oxhydric microburners (oxygen, hydrogen and alcohol vapor) have been utilized with some success
The most widely used heating source is an electric arc This technique offers advantage of consistent, easily controlled heat with adaptability for use under field conditions
Fusion Splices
Fusion splicing apparatus
Fusion Splices
Prefusion method for splicing optical ffibers

Fusion Splices
This technique, known as prefusion, removes the requirement for fiber end preparation which has distinct advantage in the field environment A possible drawback with fusion splicing is that the heat necessary to fuse the fibers may weaken the fiber in the vicinity of the splice
Sellf-alignment phenomena
Self-alignment, is caused by surface tension effects between the two fiber ends during fusing
Fusion splicing
The reduced tensile strength is attributed to:
the combined effects of surface damage caused by handling, surface defect growth during heating and induced residential stresses due to changes in chemical composition
It is therefore necessary that the completed splice is packaged so as to reduce tensile loading upon the fiber in the vicinity of the splice
Mechanical splices
A common method for splicing fibers mechanically involves the use of an accurately produced rigid alignment tube into which the prepared fiber ends are permanently bonded
Mechanical splices
In general, snug tube splices exhibit problems with capillary tolerance requirements The loose tube splice uses an oversized square section metal tube which easily accepts the prepared fiber ends. Transparent adhesive is first inserted into the tube followed by the fibers. The splice is self-aligning when the fibers are curved in the same plane, forcing the fiber ends simultaneously into the same corner of the tube
The collapsed sleeve splicing technique

This method utilizes a Pyres glass sleeve which has a lower melting point than the fibers to be jointed When the sleeve is heated to its softening point it collapses due to surface tension, eventually forming a solid rod
V-groove splicing technique
The Springroove splicing technique
The precision pin splicing technique
Fiber connectors
Demountable fiber connectors are more difficult to achieve than optical fiber splices This is because:
they must maintain similar tolerance requirements to splices in order to couple light between fibers efficiently Also the connector design must allow for repeated connection and disconnection without problems of fiber alignment
Fiber connectors
To operate satisfactorily the demountable connector must provide reproducible accurate alignment of the optical fibers In order to maintain an optimum performance the connector:
must protect the fiber ends from damage which may occur due to handling (connection and disconnection), must be insensitive to environmental factors (e.g. moisture and dust) must cope with tensile load on the cable
Fiber connectors
Additionally, the connector should ideally be a low cost component which can be fitted with relative ease Optical fiber connectors may be considered in three major areas, which are:
The fiber termination which protects and locates the fiber ends The fiber end alignment to provide optimum optical coupling The outer shell which maintains the connection and the fiber alignment, protects the fiber ends from the environment and provides adequate strength at the joint
Fiber connectors
The use of an index matching material in the connector between the two jointed fibers can assist the connector design in two ways:
It increases the light transmission through the connection keeping dust and dirt from between the fibers
Fiber connectors may be separated into two broad categories:

butt jointed connectors expanded beam connectors
Fiber connectors
Butt jointed connectors rely upon alignment of the two prepared fiber ends in close proximity (butted) to each other so that the fiber core axes coincide Expanded beam connectors utilize interposed optics at the joint (i.e. lenses or tapers) in order to expand the beam from the transmitting fiber end before reducing it again to a size compatible with the receiving fiber end
Butt joint connectors

Ferrule connector (concentric sleeve connector)
The two fibers to be connected are permanently bonded (with epoxy resin) in metal plugs known as ferrules which have an accurately drilled central hole in their end faces where the stripped (of buffer coating) fiber is located
It is essential with this type of connector that the fiber end faces are smooth and square (i.e. perpendicular to the fiber axis)
Ferrule connector
This may be achieved with varying success by either
Cleaving the fiber before insertion into the ferrule Inserting and bonding before cleaving the fiber close to the ferrule end face Using either (a) or (b) and polishing the fiber end face until it is flush with the end of the ferrule
Polishing the fiber end face after insertion and bonding provides the best results but it tends to be time-consuming and inconvenient especially in the field
Ferrule connector
Examples of ferrule connectors

2.5 mm ferrule
ST
sc FC
Examples of ferrule connectors

1.25 mm ferrule LC
MU LX-5
Biconical connector
Biconic connector
Ceramic Capillary Connector
Double Eccentric Connector
Triple Bell Connector
Expanded Beam Connectors

The use of this interposed optics makes the achievement of lateral alignment much less critical than with a butt jointed fiber connector Also the longitudinal separation between the two mated halves of the connector ceases to be critical However, this is achieved at the expense of the more stringent angular alignment

It is useful for multifiber connection and edge connection for printed circuit boards where lateral and longitudinal alignment are frequently difficult to achieve

Lens coupled expanded beam connectors
In summary
Splices are a permanent joint of two fibers
Lower attenuation and reflectance than connectors Stronger and cheaper than connectors Easier to perform than connectorization Mass splicing does 12 fibers at a time, for ribbon cables
In summary
Fusion Splicing
Melts the fibers together to form a continuous fiber Expensive machine Strongest and best join for singlemode fiber May lower bandwidth of multimode fiber
In summary
Mechanical Splicing
Mechanically aligns fibers Contains index-matching gel to transmit light Equipment cost is low Per-splice cost is high Quality of splice varies, but better than connectors Fiber alignment can be tuned using a Visual Fault Locator

Chapter five: Overview

Laser
LED
Optical sources
There are three main types of optical light souces:
Wideband continuous spectra sources (incandescent lamps) Monochromatic incoherent sources (light emitting diodes LEDs); Monochromatic coherent sources (lasers)
Optical sources
The major requirements for optical sources:

A size and configuration compatible with launching light into an optical fiber
Must accurately track the electrical input signal to minimize distortion and noise Should emit light at wavelengths where the fiber has low losses and low dispersion and where the detectors are efficient Must be capable of simple signal modulation over a wide bandwidth
Optical sources
The major requirements for optical sources:
Must couple sufficient optical power to overcome attenuation in the fiber plus additional connector losses and leave adequate power to drive the detector Should have a very narrow spectral bandwidth (linewidth) Must be capable of maintaining a stable optical output It is essential that the source is comparatively cheap and highly reliable
Laser
The term LASER is an acronym for:
Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation
The operation of laser may be described by the formation of an electromagnetic standing wave within a cavity (or optical resonator) which provides an output of monochromatic highly coherent radiation
Absorption and Emission of radiation

The interaction of light with matter takes place in discrete packets of energy or quanta, called photons Quantum theory suggests that atoms exist only in certain discrete energy states such that absorption and emission of light causes them to make a transition from one discrete energy state to another

The frequency of the absorbed or emitted radiation f is related to the difference in energy E between the higher energy state E2 and the lower energy state E1 by the expression:
where h = 6.626 10-34 Js is Plancks constant

Spontaneous and Stimulated Emission

Spontaneous emission gives incoherent radiation Spontaneous emission in semiconductors provides the basic mechanism for light generation within the LED The stimulated emission process is used laser

The photon produced by stimulated emission is generally of an identical energy to the one which caused it and hence the light associated with it is of the same frequency The light associated with the stimulating and stimulated photon is in phase and has the same polarization Stimulated emission produces coherent radiation

when an atom is stimulated to emit light energy by an incident wave, the liberated energy can add to the wave in a constructive manner, providing amplification.
Optical Emission from Semiconductors

The p-n Junction
Intrinsic semiconductor
The p-n Junction

For a semiconductor in thermal equilibrium the energy level occupation is described by the Fermi-Dirac distribution function
The p-n Junction

Extrinsic semiconductors
n and p-type semiconductor

The p-n Junction
Spontaneous emission
Electron-hole recombination can radiative or nonradiative In nonradiative recombination the energy released is dissipated in the form of lattice vibrations and thus heat In radiative recombination the energy is released with the creation of a photon with a frequency where the energy is approximately equal to the bandgap energy Eg:
This spontaneous emission of light from within the diode structure is known as electroluminescence The light is emitted at the site of carrier recombination which is primarily close to the junction the amount of radiative recombination and the emission area within the structure is dependent upon the semiconductor materials used and the fabrication of the device
carrier recombination giving spontaneous emission of light in a p-n junction diode
Direct & indirect bandgap semiconductors
Stimulated emission and lasing

Carrier population inversion is achieved in an intrinsic (undoped) semiconductor by the injection of electrons into the conduction band of the material

Incident photons with energy Eg but less than the separation energy of the quasi Fermi levels Eq = EFc EFv cannot be absorbed because the necessary conduction band states are occupied However, these photons can induce a downward transition of an electron from the filled conduction band states into the empty valence band states thus stimulating the emission of another photon

The basic condition for stimulated emission is therefore dependent on the quasi Fermi level separation energy as well as the bandgap energy and may be defined as:

Population inversion may be obtained at a p-n junction by heavy doping of both the p and n type material The condition for stimulated emission is satisfied for electromagnetic radiation of frequency: Eg/h < f < (EFc EFv)/h Therefore any radiation of this frequency which is confined to the active region will be amplied

The degenerate p-n junction
Light output against current xtics
Homojunction & Heterojunction

A p-n junction made out of two differently doped semiconductors that are of the same material (i.e having the same band gap) is called a homojunction A heterojunction is an interference between two adjoining single crystal semiconductors with different bandgap energies Semiconductor device structure that has junctions between different bandgap materials is called heterostructure device
Double heterojunction injection laser
Semiconductor injection laser

Major advantages:
High radiance due to the amplifying effect of stimulated emission Narrow linewidth of the order 1 nm or less Modulation capabilities Relative temporal coherence Good spatial coherence
The Light Emitting Diode

The LED can operate at lower current densities than the injection laser the emitted photons have random phases and the device is an incoherent optical source The energy of the emitted photons is only roughly equal to the bandgap energy of the semiconductor material, which gives a much wider spectral linewidth (possibly by a factor of 100) than the injection laser
The Light Emitting Diode

The LED supports many optical modes within its structure and is generally a multimode source At present LEDs have several drawbacks in comparison with injection lasers
Drawbacks or disadvantages of LEDs

Generally lower optical power coupled into a fiber (microwatts) Relatively small modulation bandwidth (often less than 50 MHz) Harmonic distortion.
Advantages of LEDs
Simpler fabrication Cost Reliability Less temperature dependence Simpler drive circuitry Linearity
LED Efficiency
LED quantum efficiency is defined as the ratio of photons generated to injected electrons The absence of optical amplification through stimulated emission in the LED tends to limit the internal quantum efficiency of the device Reliance on spontaneous emission allows nonradiative recombination to take place within the structure due to crystalline imperfections and impurities
LED Efficiency
Although the possible internal quantum efficiency can be relatively high the radiation geometry for an LED which emits through a planer surface is essentially Lambertian in that the surface radiance (the power radiated from a unit area into a unit solid angle; given in W sr-1 m-2) is constant in all directions
Lambertian intensity distribution
LED efficiency
The external power efficiency ep is defined as the ratio of the optical power emitted externally Pe to the electrical power provided to the device P or:
LED efficiency
the optical power emitted Pe into a medium of low refractive index n from the face of a planar LED fabricated from a material of refractive index nx is given approximately by:
LED efficiency
If significant optical power is to be coupled from an incoherent LED into a low NA fiber the device must exhibit very high radiance To obtain the necessary high radiance, direct bandgap semiconductors must be used fabricated with DH structures which may be driven at current densities
The double heterojunction LED
LED Structures
There are four major types of LED structure although only two have found extensive use in optical fiber communications

surface (Burrus ) emitter edge emitter planar LED dome LED
Planar LED
Dome LED
Surface emitter (Burrus) LED

The structure of an AlGaAs DH surfaceemitting LED
Edge emitter LED

the structure of a stripe geometry DH AlGaAs edge emitting LED
Edge emitter LED

The structure of an InGaAsP edge-emitting LED for operation at a wavelength of 1.3 m
Why homojunction is bad?

A. Shallow p-region narrow to allow photons to escape without reabsorption. I. If the p-region is too shallow, electrons can escape the p-region by diffusion and recombine through crystal defect in the surface of the layer. II. This recombination is non-radiative and decreases the efficiency of the LED.
Why homojunction is bad?

2. Thick pregion then reabsoprtion will be the main problem as the photons will have a long way to go before they can be successful emitted. I. Create a heterojunction instead since heterojunction solves: II. Reabsoption problem (photon confinement) III. Also carrier confinement
Chapter 6: Optical Detectors

A fiber-optics receiver is an electro-optic device that accepts optical signals from an optical fiber and converts them into electrical signals
Optical Detectors
key receiver performance parameters that can affect the overall system operation are:

Receiver spectra response, sensitivity, frequency response and dynamic range
The choice of optical detector materials and structure determines the spectral response

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Optoelectronics & Optical Communication

(TEL 422 & TEL 474) by

Opto & Optical Communication

Opto & Optical Communication

Course Code: TEL 422 & TEL 474

Pre-requisite: Electromagnetic Theory

 Test/Quiz/Assignments/Mid-sem: 20%  Final Examination: 70%

Opto & Optical Communication

Opto & Optical Communication

Chapter one: Overview

Opto & Optical Communication

Evolution of optical fiber

Opto & Optical Communication

The General System

A general communication system

Optical fiber communication system

Opto & Optical Communication

Optical fiber communication system

A digital optical link

Advantages of optical fiber

Opto & Optical Communication

Advantages of optical fiber

Opto & Optical Communication

Advantages of optical fiber

Opto & Optical Communication

Disadvantages of optical fiber

Chapter two: Overview

Transmission Of Light Through Optical Fibers

Transmission Of Light Through Optical Fibers

Basic Optical-material Properties

Opto & Optical Communication

Basic Optical-material Properties

Opto & Optical Communication

Opto & Optical Communication

Opto & Optical Communication

Total internal reflection in fiber

Opto & Optical Communication

Opto & Optical Communication

Basic Structure of an Optical Fiber

Opto & Optical Communication

Optical fiber cable

Opto & Optical Communication

How a light ray enters an optical fiber

Opto & Optical Communication

Opto & Optical Communication

Opto & Optical Communication

Numerical Aperture (NA)

Opto & Optical Communication

Opto & Optical Communication

Opto & Optical Communication

Opto & Optical Communication

Wavefront propagation along an optical fiber

Opto & Optical Communication

Types of optical fiber

Step Index and Graded Index Fiber

Opto & Optical Communication

Step Index and Graded Index Fiber

Step Index and Graded Index Fiber

Opto & Optical Communication

Chapter three: Overview

Test/Quiz/Assignments/Mid-sem: 20% Final Examination: 70%