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LESSON
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 HEALTH SCIENCE
RESEARCH
Code Subject : CCRM 4013
Subject : RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND
STATISTIC
By
Rahimudin Bahari
ILKKM Seremban
 OVERVIEW OF SUBJECT :

Code Subject : CCRM 4013

Subject : RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND STATISTIC

SEM METHOD % WEIGHTAGE PASS

DILIVERY
SEM 1 THEORY OF 40% 30 % [ BOOKLET SUBMISSION ]
RESEARCH < 16.01.2017 > 100 %

10% [ SPSS QUIZ ] FAIL

>49.99%
60% 40% [ SEQ SUMATIVE FINAL PAPER
EXAM ]
FAIL PAPER < 19.99%
20% [ PROPOSAL PRESENTATION ]

SEM 2 RESEARCH 80% FINALE WRITING RESEARCH 100%

PROJECT BOOKLET
FAIL
20% PRESENTATION OF OUTCOME
>49.99%
 Student references :

Singh, A. H., Bakar, A. A. & and Sararaks, S. (2008). The Medical Research Handbook, Planning A Research Project.
1 Perak: Clinical Research Centre Perak and Institute For Health System Research (IHSR).

WHO (2001). Health Research Methodology: A guide for training in research methods, 2 nd edition. Geneva: WHO
2 publications
Bury, T.J. & Mead, J.M. (1998). Evidence-based healthcare: A practical guide for therapist. Oxford: Butterworth-
3 Heinemann.
Polgar, S. & Thomas, S.A. (2008 ). Introduction to research in health sciences (5 th ed.). USA: Churchill Livingstone.
4
Polit, D.F. & Hungler, B.P. (1999). Nursing research: Principles and methods (6 th ed.). USA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
5
Stein, F., Rice, M. & Culter, S.K. (2012). Clinical research occupational therapy (5 th ed.). USA: Delmar.
6
Stephen, P., & Shane, A. (1995). Thomas Introduction to Research Methodology. 2 nd Edition. London: Churchill
7 Livingstone.
Rosner, B. (2011). Fundamentals of Biostatistics, 7 th edition. Boston: Cengage learning.
8
Arthur, H., Kevin, B. The Paramedic Companion; A case-based work text
9
 CONTENT of LECTURE :

1. Overview of research in MOH

2. Introduction of research
3. Problems statement
4. Literature review
5. Methodology
6. Research statistic I : Descriptive quantitative
7. Research statistic II : Hypothesis testing [parametric and
non parametric test ]
8. Report writing
OVERVIEW RESEARCH IN M.O.H
Senario mitos fakta atau
auta……
“.. Mandi bunga laaaa… kalau tak khawin-khawin lagi..”

“..makan tongkat ali ubat kuat tuuuuu..”

“ ..makan kacip fatimah…jadi cik fatimah ..ketattt jee“..

“..makan hati ayam tambah darah masa datang haid nie “

“ ..minum fresh oren tiap pagi nak kuruskan badan”

“.. Makan daging rusa jika nak hilangkan penyakit

asma ..”
National Health Morbidity Survey (NHMS) :

● NHMS I = 1986
● NHMS II = 1996
● NHMS III = 2006
● NHMS IV = 2016
● NHMS V = ?
 7 RESEARCH INSTITUTE IN M.O.H :

1. NATIONAL INSTITUE OF HEALTH (NIH)

2. CLINICAL RESEACRH CENTRE (CRC)
3. INSTITUTE OF MEDICAL RESEARCH
(IMR)
4. INSTITUTE OF PUBLIC HEALTH (IKU)
5. INSTITUTE FOR HEALTH MANAGEMENT
(IHM)
6. INSTITUTE OF HEALTH SYSTEM
RESEARCH (IHSR)
7. INSTITUTE OF HEALTH BEHAVIOURAL
RESEARCH (IPTK)
 [1] INTRODUCTION OF
RESEARCH – 1 hr
1.1 Introduction to research
1.2 Types of research
1.3 Common terminologies
1.4 Ethical consideration
1.5 Reseacrh process
 1.1 Definition of research ;

● Research is a scientific inquiry aimed at learning new facts,

testing ideas, etc.
● It is the systematic collection, analysis and interpretation of
data to generate new knowledge and answer a certain question
or solve a problem.

OR
● Is a systematic , controlled, empirical and critical investigation of
natural phenomena guided by theory and hypothesis
● essentially a problem solving process, a systematic , intensive study
directed towards full , scientific knowledge of the subject studied
● is a careful inquiry or examination in seeking facts or principles, a
diligent Investigation to ascertain something
 1.1 Characteristics of research ;

1. Purposive - wujud
2. Rigour - tegas , muktamad
3. Testability – boleh di uji semula
4. Replicability - boleh di kaji semula
5. Accuracy – tepat jitu
6. Objectivity - sasaran kajian jelas
7. Generalizability – hasil data kajian
boleh mewakili populasi
8. Parsimony - melangkaui biasa
 1.2 Type of research ;
1. Basic research-eg : percentage of IHD
2. Apply research – eg : Plain water using to reduce
BMI
3. Exploratory research- eg : Determine cause of
CVA
4. Descriptive research- eg ; prevalence of Diabetes
5. Diagnostic research- eg : lab study, radiology
study
6. Evaluative research-eg : pre and post test class
7. Action research- eg: Quality assurance research
 1.3 Common terminologies ;
1. Accuracy - a term used in survey research to refer to the match between the target
population and the sample
2. Bias - a loss of balance and accuracy in the use of research methods. It can appear
in research via the sampling frame, random sampling, or non-response. It can also
occur at other stages in research, such as while interviewing, in the design of
questions, or in the way data are analyzed and presented. Bias means that the
research findings will not be representative of, or generalizable to, a wider
population.
3. Central Tendency -- any way of describing or characterizing typical, average, or
common values in some distribution.
4. Chi-square Analysis -- a common non-parametric statistical test which compares an
expected proportion or ratio to an actual proportion or ratio.
 1.3 Common terminologies ;
5. Confidentiality -- a research condition in which no one except the researcher(s) knows the
identities of the participants in a study.
6. Control Group -- the group in an experimental design that receives either no treatment or a
different treatment from the experimental group. This group can thus be compared to the
experimental group.
7. Correlation -- a common statistical analysis, usually abbreviated as r, that measures the degree of
relationship between pairs of interval variables in a sample. The range of correlation is from -
1.00 to zero to +1.00. Also, a non-cause and effect relationship between two variables.
8. Covariate -- a product of the correlation of two related variables times their standard deviations.
Used in true experiments to measure the difference of treatment between them.
9. Data -- factual information [as measurements or statistics] used as a basis for reasoning,
discussion, or calculation.
 1.3 Common terminologies ;

10. Dependent Variable -- a variable that varies due, at least in part, to the impact of the independent
variable. In other words, its value “depends” on the value of the independent variable. For
example, in the variables “gender” and “academic major,” academic major is the dependent
variable, meaning that your major cannot determine whether you are male or female, but your
gender might indirectly lead you to favor one major over another.
11. External Validity -- the extent to which the results of a study are generalizable or transferable.
12. Internal Consistency -- the extent to which all questions or items assess the same characteristic,
skill, or quality.
13. Internal Validity -- the rigor with which the study was conducted [e.g., the study's design, the care
taken to conduct measurements, and decisions concerning what was and was not measured]
 1.3 Common terminologies ;

14. Null Hypothesis -- the proposition, to be tested statistically, that the experimental
intervention has "no effect," meaning that the treatment and control groups will not differ
as a result of the intervention. Investigators usually hope that the data will demonstrate
some effect from the intervention, thus allowing the investigator to reject the null
hypothesis.
15. Peer-Review -- the process in which the author of a book, article, or other type of
publication submits his or her work to experts in the field for critical evaluation, usually
prior to publication. This is standard procedure in publishing scholarly research.
16. Population -- the target group under investigation. The population is the entire set under
consideration. Samples are drawn from populations.
 1.3 Common terminologies ;

17. Probability -- the chance that a phenomenon will occur randomly. As a statistical measure, it is
shown as p [the "p" factor].
18. Questionnaire -- structured sets of questions on specified subjects that are used to gather
information, attitudes, or opinions.
19. Reliability -- the degree to which a measure yields consistent results. If the measuring instrument
[e.g., survey] is reliable, then administering it to similar groups would yield similar results.
Reliability is a prerequisite for validity. An unreliable indicator cannot produce trustworthy results.
20. Statistical Significance -- the probability that the difference between the outcomes of the control
and experimental group are great enough that it is unlikely due solely to chance. The probability
that the null hypothesis can be rejected at a predetermined significance level [0.05 or 0.01].
 1.3 Common terminologies ;

21. Statistical Tests -- researchers use statistical tests to make quantitative decisions about whether
a study's data indicate a significant effect from the intervention and allow the researcher to reject
the null hypothesis. That is, statistical tests show whether the differences between the outcomes
of the control and experimental groups are great enough to be statistically significant.
22. Validity -- the degree to which a study accurately reflects or assesses the specific concept that
the researcher is attempting to measure. A method can be reliable, consistently measuring the
same thing, but not valid.
23. Variable -- any characteristic or trait that can vary from one person to another [race, gender,
academic major] or for one person over time [age, political beliefs].
 
1.4 Ethical consideration ;

1. Human research may be conducted only with ethical approval.

2. Sub section may describes the processes that institutions may
use to provide that approval.
3. Those processes include ethical review by Human Research
Ethics Committees (Hrecs) Or other ethical review bodies,
according to the risks of the research.
4. Ethical review by an HREC is required for any research that
involves more than low risk .
5. It is also required for research discussed in : Interventions and
therapies, including clinical and non-clinical trials, and
innovations, and Human genetics, as well as for research
discussed in several topic about human health/medicine.
1.5 Step/process of research, 8 step ;
1. Problem Identification ?
2. Identify And Define The Variables ?
3. Formulating Research Objectives ?
4. Conducting A Literature Search ?
5. Theorytical Framework ?
6. Research Hypothesis ?
7. Research Design And Methods ?
8. Data Collection ?
9. Analyzing Data ?
10.Writing Up ?
1.5 Step/process of research, 15 step ;
Goals of research ;
1. Professionalism – extending base of knowledge
2. Accountability – incorporate research evidence
into clinical decisions , professionally accountable
to client
3. Social relevance of nursing requires to
identify efficacy of practice
4. Help in decision making - standard practice
requires many decision making , research play a
pivotal role in making informed decisions.
5. Helps to develop new tool - concepts and
theories
Goals of research ;
6. Formulation of strategies and policies by
providing actual data – Clinical Practice Guideline,
Standard of Practice, Protocol hospital/unit.
7. Establishes generalization.
8. Evidence-based practice to improve health
care.
9. Improve knowledge
10. Reduce health care cost
11. Solve the queries/problem/mysteries in
health care.
 Latihan 1 :

Masalah kajian : Terdapat hampir 45% kes CPR

oleh team PHC masih menggunakan kaedah
konvensional dan peralatantidak lengkap
menyebabkan kadar kejayaan CPR menurun
di Malaysia ( Ahmad , 2012)

Arahan :
1. Bina sebuah tajuk kajian yang bersesuaian
dengan kajian di atas.
2. Bincangkan ciri ciri yang perlu ada dalam
sebuah penyelidikan.
[2] PROBLEMS STATEMENT
IN RESEARCH – 4 hr
2.1 Identifying & selecting problem
2.2 Problem statement & analysis
2.3 Research objective &
Hyphothesis
 DEFINITION ‘PROBLEM STATEMENT ‘ IN RESEARCH :

● Is an expression of the dilemma or

disturbing situation that need investigation
for the purposes of providing
understanding and direction. OR
●  Is a brief description of the issues that need
to be addressed. OR 
● Clear expression about an area of concern,
a condition to be improved
 CRITERIA ‘PROBLEM STATEMENT ‘ IN
RESEARCH :
1. Relevance / Significance of the problem
○ how important is the problem?
○ Size severity, health & social consequences
○ problems that the affect communities or involve health
system are ideal
2. Duplication / replication
- Establish that the answers is not already available by some
other study.
3. Feasibility
○ Is it feasibility to carry out remedial actions?
○ Are the manpower, time and resource requirement
available?
○ Cooperation , Etc
 CRITERIA ‘PROBLEM STATEMENT ‘ IN
RESEARCH :
4. Applicability
– Will the potential solution be effective for solving the problem under
idea conditions?
5. Cost Effectiveness
– Are the resources invested in doing the worth the outcome?
– Will the solution be too expensive to implement
6. Timeliness
– Will we get an answer quick enough?
7. Ethical acceptability
– Will the project be acceptable to those who are studied.
8. Political acceptability
– Will the manager and the community accept the results
9. Research ability
– Involves moral ethical issues / measurable
10. Interest to the researcher/ ability of the researcher
11. Suitability
The GOOD PRACTICE of MAKING ‘PROBLEM
STATEMENT ‘ IN RESEARCH :
● This should include (1) a clear statement that
the problem exists, (2) evidence that
supports the existence of the problem, (3)
evidence of an existing trend that has led
to the problem, (4) definitions of major
concepts and terms (this can be provided
below in a subsection), (5) a clear
description of the setting, (6) probable
causes related to the problem, and (7) a
specific and feasible statement.
 2.1 Identifying & selecting problem

5 Ways to Formulate the Research Problem ;

1. Specify the Research Objectives
2. Review the Environment or Context of the
Research Problem
3. Explore the Nature of the Problem
4. Define the Variable Relationships
5. The Consequences of Alternative Courses of
Action
2.2 Problem statement & analysis
 2.2 Developing a research framework

2 type of frame work of research ;

1. Conceptual frame work ; A conceptual framework is an
analytical tool with several variations and contexts. It is used to
make conceptual distinctions and organize ideas. Strong
conceptual frameworks capture something real and do this in a
way that is easy to remember and apply.
2. Theoretical frame work ; The theoretical framework is
one of the more infamous components of a thesis. A good
theoretical framework gives you a strong scientific research base
and provides support for the rest of your thesis
 Latihan 2 :

“ Baru-baru ini terdapat peningkatan penggunaan

rokok elektronik (e-cigarette / vape) dalam
kalangan warga remaja di Malaysia. Anda
dikehendaki menjalankan satu kajian berkaitan isu
ini “
1. Senaraikan variable yang terlibat dalam kajian di
atas.
2. Lakarkan suatu kerangka konseptual bagi kajian
di atas
Jawapan latihan 2 :

● Rokok Elektronik
● Remaja
● Umur
● Lelaki
● Prempuan
● Asap
● Nikotin
● Perasa
● Agama
● DLL
 2.3 Research objective & Hyphothesis
4 Charecteristic making of research objective ,
1. MEASURE: Research objectives should contain a
measurement objective, specifying what your research team is
trying to measure.
2. CATEGORIZE: Research objectives are essentially summary
statements detailing the categories of data you want to acquire.
3. TARGET: It is evident that you need to choose a target
population that will provide the data you need.
4. COMPARE: In many cases, you will want to compare data
from previous years, compare certain segments of a population
to each other, or benchmark data against existing market data.
 2.3 Making objective research ;

We should use action word/verb in research objective ;

1. To identify
2. To establish 1. Untuk mengenal pasti…..
3. To describe 2. Untuk membandingkan….
4. To determine 3. Untuk mengira ………
5. To estimate 4. Untuk memastikan ……..
6. To develop 5. Untuk mengesahkan …….
7. To compare
6. Untuk menerangkan
8. To analyse
………
9. To collect……etc
7. Untuk membina ……….
 2.5 Hyphothesis ;

Definition : A hypothesis is a statement of the

researcher's prediction regarding the
outcome of the study.

Type of hyphothesis ;
1. Null hyphothesis
2. Alternative hyphothesis
 2.5 Hyphothesis ;

1. Null hyphothesis ;
● The null hypothesis attempts to show that NO VARIATION
EXISTS between variables, or that a single variable is no
different than zero.
●  e.g. There is no significant relationship between the total
hours of doing revision and the score obtained in the
examination.

2. Alternative hyphothesis ;
● The hypothesis which is accepted when the null
hypothesis has been rejected is called the alternative
hypothesis .
●  e.g. There is a significant relationship between the total
hours of doing revision and the students’ score in their
examination.
 HIPOTESIS HIPOTESIS NULL (Ha)
ALTERNATIF (Ho)

Amalan penjagaan Tiada kaitan antara

pemakanan yang tidak amalan penjagaan
seimbang menyebabkan pemakanan yang tidak
peningkatan obesiti di seimbang dengan
kalangan pelajar sekolah peningkatan obesiti di
menengah…… kalangan pelajar sekolah
menengah……
Kurangnya pengetahuan Tiada kaitan di antara
tentang komplikasi HPT pengetahuan ttg komplikasi
mybbkan peningkatan kes hpt dengan peningkatan
strok di kalangan… kes strok di kalangan…
 The meaning of SIGNIFICANCE of study in
research ;

● The significance of a study typically includes an

explanation of the work's significance, its potential
benefits and its overall impact.

● The significance of a study, often called the

"rationale," attempts to explain to an audience
why a researcher's work is worth performing.
 Latihan 3 :

Tajuk kajian : Keberkesanan CPR menggunakan

AED dalam PHC Negeri Perak.
Masalah kajian : Terdapat hampir 45% kes CPR
oleh team PHC masih menggunakan kaedah
konvensional dan tidak lengkap peralatan
menyebabkan kadar kejayaan CPR menurun di
Malaysia ( Ahmad , 2012)

Arahan :
1. Bina 5 kemungkinan objektif yang boleh
disesuaikan dengan kenyataan di atas.
2. Bina 4 kemungkinan hipotesis yang sesuai bagi
kenyataan di atas.
[3] LITERATURE REVIEW –
3 hr

3.1 Organizing the related literature

3.2 Referencing and citation
 31. Organizing the related literature

Definition : A literature review is a text of a

scholarly paper, which includes the current
knowledge including substantive findings, as
well as theoretical and methodological
contributions to a particular topic. Literature
reviews are secondary sources, and do not
report new or original experimental work.
 3.1 Purpose of literature review ;

1. As a source of research ideas

2. Help to narrow topic
3. To identify gap
4. To identify new clinical intervention
5. To gain information about research
design, samples, instrument
6. to review previous studies
7. as supportive evidence
3.1 Primery resource Vs Secondary resource in literature
review ;

1. PRIMARY RESOURCES - written by the person who

originated - e.g.. questionnaire, borang pemerhatian,
senarai semak, sumber kumpulan fokus.

2. SECONDARY RESOURCES -Summaries or quotes from

primary sources - e.g. conferences, proceedings,
journals, encyclopaedias, guides, and handbooks.

3. TERTIARY RESOURCES - Provides overviews of topics

by synthesizing information gathered from other
resources. E.g. encyclopedias, dictionary, guides and
handbooks.
 3.2 Bibliography Vs References ;

1. A REFERENCE LIST must include every source

(book, chapter or article) that you have cited in
your writing.

2. A BIBLIOGRAPHY contains all the above plus

your background reading, where some sources
have not been cited.
 3.2 Style of Referencing and citation :

1. American Psychological Association (APA)

2. Australian Guide to Legal Citation (AGLC)
3. Chicago Manual of style
4. Harvard system
5. Modern Language Association of America
(MLA)
6. Vancouver
 3.2 Style of Referencing and citation :

1. APA (American Psychological Association) ; The APA referencing

style uses author date parenthetical, in text citations based on the
Harvard style. It is commonly used in Psychology, but it is also used
in other disciplines.
2. Harvard ; The Harvard style is a generic term for any referencing
system that uses author-date references in the text of the document,
either within or at the end of a sentence. The full citation details are
listed alphabetically at the end of the document. There is no definitive
style guide for the Harvard style. The key to using the system is
consistency throughout your document. A number of universities and
organisations base their Harvard style on the Australian Government
Publishing Service (AGPS) guide.
3. MLA (Modern Language Association of America) ; The MLA style
uses brief parenthetical in text citations linked to an alphabetised list
at the end of the document. The MLA style is often used in literature
and linguistics.
● APA style requires authors to use the past tense or
present perfect tense when using signal phrases to
describe earlier research, for example, Jones (1998)
found or Jones (1998) has found...
 3.2 Referencing and citation :

Here are some examples of the APA style:

● From Book:
Brookes, R. (2014). Study Guide Little Bird (p. 5). Adelaide: State Ed.
.New York.
● From Journal:
Esen, E., & Collison, J. (2005). Employee development survey report.
Society For Human Resource Management, V(A), 4.

● From Website:
About.com Islam,. (2014). Evils of Gossip and Backbiting in Islam.
Retrieved 12 June 2014, from
http://islam.about.com/od/familycommunity/a/Gossip-Backbiting.htm
 Latihan 4 :

Arahan :
1. Buka web site di bawah dan baca,
https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/560/02/

2. Membuat sebuah topik rujukan , buat 3

rujukan(references) dan membuat 3 citasi yang
sesuai daripada rujukan tersebut dalam 1
perenggan.
 [4] METHODOLOGY OF
RESEARCH – 8 hr
4.1 Research Design
4.2 Study Types
4.3 Variables ( dependent , independent )
4.4 Sampling
4.5 Data collection procedures
4.6 Ethics , validity , reliability
4.7 Bias
 4.1 DESIGN / Classification method of research;

1.QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
2.QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
 STUDY SETTING ?

● Description of the study environment
including the location and experimental
setup (adalah berkaitan tempat dan masa
berkaitan sampel dan populasi).
● For studies of web usage, this includes
the browsing environment as well as any
visible data collection methods.
 4.1 Design / Classification method of
research;

2. QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH ;
● Data dalam bentuk numerical
● Mengkaji tentang apa, mana, dan bila dalam membuat keputusan
● Penyiasatan yang sistematik saintifik tentang kejadiannya serta
hubungannya, digunakan secara meluas dalam pendidikan
● Menggunakan model matematik , teori dan hipotesis berkait
dengan kejadian semulajadi.
● Pengukuran memusat membekalkan perhubungan asas diantara
pemerhatian hasil pengalaman dan pernyataan matematikal.
● Contoh: KAP studies, clinical experimental studies
 4.1 Design / Classification method of
research;

2. QUALITATIVE RESEARCH ;
● Data dalam bentuk perkataan , tiada nilai numerikal.
● Digunakan menilai perasaaan, motivasi, emosi .
● Menyiasat kenapa , bagaimana dalam membuat keputusan.
● Pemahaman lebih mendalam dalam tingkahlaku manusia.
● Sampel yang kecil tetapi fokus dari sampel yang besar.
● Data berbentuk primer.
● Empat kaedah pengumpulan maklumat (penyertaan
suasana sebenar , pemerhatian terus, temubual yang
mendalam, analisa dokumen dan bahan).
● Contoh: studies regarding feelings, emotion, satisfaction,
etc.
4.2 STUDY TYPES ;
 4.2 STUDY TYPES ;

(A) CERAPAN/SURVEY (B) EKSPERIMEN

(Ambil Apa Yg telah wujud) (DiKawal)

ANALITIK KORELASI EKOLOGI

DESKRIPTIF
(Penyakit & (Penyakit & CUBAAN
(Siapa, Bila &
Pendedahan Pendedahan MASYARAKAT
Dimana)
Pd Individu) Pd Individu))

1. KAJIAN RENTAS 2. KES KAWALAN 3. KOHOT CUBAAN

Cross sectional Case controle cohort KLINIKAL
(PREVALENS) (ODD RATIO-od) ( RELATIVE RISK-rr
INSIDEN -Is)
68
 4.2 STUDY TYPES/jenis kajian ;

1) KAJIAN RENTAS (CROSS SECTIONAL) : adalah kajian serta merta

dalam populasi yang dilakukan pada masa tersebut , berjangka pendek,
melibatkan semua kes-kes baru dan kes lama. Hasil kajian dalam
bentuk prevelans ( 0.00 / 0.00%) . Contohnya kajian berkaitan
prevelans penyakit hipertensi di kalangan penduduk kg.gajah mati.

2) KAJIAN KES KAWALAN(CASE CONTROLE) : adalah kajian dalam

populasi yang dilakukan dalam dua kumpulan. Satu kumpulan yang
diasingkan sebagai kes(diberikan intervensi atau rawatan placebo),dan
satu kumpulan lagi sebagai kawalan(bebas dan tiada intervensi) . Hasil
kajian adalah dalam bentuk nilai risiko penyakit 0 hingga 1( odds
ratio ). <0 risiko rendah, 1 sama sama tiada risiko >1 risiko tinggi,
Contoh kajian penduduk yang makan telur masin dengan penduduk
yang tidak makan telur masin yang mengakibatkan penyakit dementia
awal.
 4.2 STUDY TYPES/jenis kajian ;

3) KAJIAN KOHORT (COHORT) : adalah kajian

epid dalam populasi yang dilakukan pada satu
tempoh yang ditetapkan dan hasilnya ialah sejumlah
kes baru yang dijangkakan. Contohnya, kajian
insiden obesiti dikalangan remaja dalam masa 10
tahun. Didapati dari 100 remaja yang BMI Ideal
pada tahun 1990, sehingga tahun 2000 terdapat 30
orang remaja telah menjadi obesiti. Maka insiden
obesiti dikalangan remaja dalam masa 10 tahun
adalah 30%.
 KEBAIKKAN DAN KELEMAHAN REKEBENTUK
KAJIAN

1 ) KAJIAN IRISAN LINTANG (cross sectional )

Kebaikkan :
- Mudah , cepat, ringkas, kurang kos, kurang masa, staff
sekali sahaja digunakan.

Keburukan :
- Hasil kajian kurang jelas dan kurang signifikan.
- Tidak mengambarkan populasi sebenar dan populasi
sebenar
- Skop populasi sangat terbuka
 KEBAIKKAN DAN KELEMAHAN
REKEBENTUK KAJIAN
2 ) KAJIAN PERBANDINGAN /KES KAWALAN
(case controle)
Kebaikkan :
- Hasil kajian dapat dibezakan secara signifikan dan
terkawal.
- Kesan kajian jelas.

Keburukan :
- Masa , kos, waktu, alatan, ubatan meningkat.
- Hanya pada populasi tersebut sahaja berguna dan
berkesan
 KEBAIKKAN DAN KELEMAHAN
REKEBENTUK KAJIAN

3 ) KAJIAN KOHORT ( cohort )

Kebaikkan :
- Tidak tergesa – gesa, masa rehat lama, hasil
kajian yang signifkan beza.

Keburukan :
- Masa, waktu, kos, staff , peralatan, ubat yang
tinggi dan lama
- Staff, responden hilang dan lari
Latihan 5 ; Tentukan jenis kajian ? ;

“ kajian ini dilakukan di kampung kuala krai

pada tahun 2008. kajian ini mengkaji peratus
kanak-kanak yang obes dikampung tersebut.
Didapati prevelans obesiti kanak-kanak
tersebut adalah 12%.. “

“ kajian ini telah dilakukan bermula sejak tahun

2001 sehingga tahun 2009. sepanjang tempoh
tersebut didapati insiden kes kecacatan bayi
yang lahir adalah seramai 10 orang..”
 Latihan 6 : Tentukan jenis kajian ? ;

“ kajian ini dilakukan bagi melihat keberkesanan

ubat stress dikalangan pelatih PPP KIST. Sampel
dipilih antara lelaki dan wanita. Hasil kajian
mendapati pelatih lelaki lebih berkesan
berbanding pelatih wanita ..”

“ ..kajian ini dilakukan bagi membandingkan

masalah kurang zat makanan(KZM) antara
remaja yang tinggal di KG Kuala Ketil Perlis dan
KG Gajah Mati Kelantan..”
 4.3 VARIABLES OF RESEARCH;

● OPERATIONALIZATION THE VARIBABLES

is the process of strictly defining variables into
measurable factors. The process defines fuzzy
concepts and allows them to be measured,
empirically and quantitatively.
 4.3 VARIABLES OF RESEARCH;

Definition : A variable is defined as anything that has

a quantity or quality that varies.

1. The dependent variable is the variable a

researcher is interested in.
2. An independent variable is
a variable believed to affect the
dependentvariable.
3. Confounding variables are defined as
interference caused by another variable.
 Latihan 7 : Tentukan jenis varibles,
Variable Jenis variables
Jenis perubahan tingkah laku seseorang
Tahap kepuasan pelanggan
Mempunyai penunjuk arah ke kecemasan
Status merokok
Pengetahuan berkaitan CPR
Jantina
Bangsa
Pendidikan
Tahap pengetahuan kes STEMI
Pengetahuan STEMI
 4.3 VARIABLES OF RESEARCH;

In the SPPS computer ;

 4.3 VARIABLES OF RESEARCH

4 scale measurement types of variables ;

1. Nominal (data jenis kategori yang tidak mempunyai

turutan, cth : jantina, bangsa, agama etc )
2. Ordinal (data jenis kategori yang mempunyai turutan,
cth : tahap gaji , tahap pendidikan …etc )
3. Interval (data jenis nombor yang tidak mempunyai
sifar mutlak, cth : 120-140 mmhg , 141-150
mmhg ..etc)
4. Ratio (data jenis nombor yang mempunyai sifar mutlak,
cth : umur , suhu , RBS , cholestrol level ..etc)
4.3 VARIABLES OF RESEARCH
 VARIABLES SCALE OF MEASUREMENT ?
Age (years) b (i)
Gender b (ii)
male
female
Ethnic group b (iii)
Malay
Chinese
Indian
others
Educational level b (iv)
primary
secondary
tertiary
Shirt size b (v)
S
M
L
XL
Body weight (kg) b (vi)
 4.4 SAMPLING ;

 Definition : Sampling is the process of selecting

units/subset (e.g., people, organizations) from a
population of interest so that by studying the sample
we may fairly generalize our results back to the
population from which they were chosen. 
 4.4 SAMPLING ;

1. Population
● define as an aggregate of all things/
units possessing a common trait/
characteristics.

2. Sample
● A selected subset of the study
population.
● There are three major threats to external
validity because there are three ways you could
be wrong -- PEOPLE, PLACES OR TIMES.
 EXTERNAL VALIDITY IN SAMPLING :

● External validity is related to generalizing.

That's the major thing you need to keep in
mind. Recall that validity refers to the
approximate truth of propositions,
inferences, or conclusions.
So, external validity refers to the
approximate truth of conclusions the
involve generalizations.
 Sampling Error
:

● The standard error is called sampling error. A low

sampling error means that we had relatively less
variability or range in the sampling distribution. 
● We base our calculation on the standard deviation of
our sample. The greater the sample standard
deviation, the greater the standard error (and the
sampling error).
● The standard error is also related to the sample size.
● The greater your sample size, the smaller the standard
error. Why? Because the greater the sample size, the
closer your sample is to the actual population itself. 
Source :
http://www.socialresearchmetho
ds.net/kb/sampstat.php
 4.4 TYPE OF SAMPLING ;

1. PROBALITY SAMPLING ; A probability

sampling method is any method of sampling that
utilizes some form of random selection.
2. NON PROBALITY SAMPLING ; nonprobability
samples, we may or may not represent the
population well, and it will often be hard for us
to know how well we've done so.
Sumber :
http://apps.who.int/iris/
handle/10665/40062
Sumber : http://www.surveysystem.com/sscalc.htm
 1. Untuk Kajian Tinjauan/survey ;
200 individu Pilih semua populasi (census
sampling)

400correlational
Lebih kurang For studies , a minimum
Kira-kira 50% of 30
tested.
Lebih 1,000 Kira-kira 20%

Populasi besar 5,000 atau lebih 350 – 500 biasanya mencukupi

2. Untuk kajian Eksperimen ;

Memerlukan sekurang-kurangnya 30 peserta bagi setiap kumpulan

Generalisasi ini adalah berasaskan kepada Krejie dan Morgan (1970)

Sila rujuk artikel berkaitan untuk keterangan yang lebih lanjut.
 Formula Pengiraan Saiz Sampel

no
Cochran (1977) no =
(1 + n0/N)
(t2) (p) (q) t = 1.96 – nilai t untuk α = 0.05 dan populasi N ≥ 60 (Barlet,
no = 2001)
p dan q = 0.5 – nisbah maksimum yang mungkin
d2
menghasilkan saiz sampel yang maksimum
d – margin kesilapan yang boleh diterima bagi bahagian
(1.962) (0.5) (0.5)
yang dianggarkan = 0.05
no =
0.052 Contoh N = 279, maka: no
n=
no = 384.16 (1 + no/N)

384.16
n=
(1 + 384.16/279)
Saiz sampel yang diperlukan adalah 161
384.16
n= = 161.41
2.38
 X2NP(1 – P)
Krejcie & Morgan (1970) s =
d2(N-1)+(x2P(1-
P)
s = saiz sampel yang diperlukan
N = saiz populasi yang dikenalpasti
P = perkadaran populasi diandaikan 0.5 kerana magnitud ini akan menghasilkan
saiz sampel yang maksimum.
d = darjah ketepatan yang maksimum (0.05)
x2 = nilai khi kuasa dua daripada jadual pada darjah kebebasan 1 iaitu 3.841

Contoh N = 279 3.841(279)(0.5)(1-0.5)

maka: s =
(0.05)2(279-1)+3.841(0.5)(1-0.5)

3.841(279)(0.5)(0.5) 268
s = = = 161.45 =
161
(0.0025)(278)+1.9205(0.5) 1.66

Saiz sampel yang diperlukan adalah 161

 LATIHAN MENGIRA MINIMUM SAMPLE SIZE ;

‘anda perlu membuat survey berkaitan

kesedaran masyarakat berkaitan kepentingan
mengetahui asas cpr di kampung asal anda.
sila lakukan pengiraan saiz minimum sampel
kajian anda dalam skala penuh mengikut
formula Krejcie & Morgan (1970)’
 JADUAL PENENTUAN SAIZ SAMPEL OLEH KREJCIE DAN MORGAN, 1970

Populasi Sampel Populasi Sampel Populasi Sampel Populasi Sampel

10 10 140 103 460 210 2000 322
15 14 150 108 480 214 2200 327
20 19 160 113 500 217 2400 331
25 24 170 118 550 226 2600 335
30 28 180 123 600 234 2800 338
35 32 190 127 650 242 3000 341
40 36 200 132 700 248 3500 346
45 40 210 136 750 254 4000 351
50 44 220 140 800 260 4500 354
55 48 230 144 850 265 5000 357
60 52 240 148 900 269 6000 361
65 56 250 152 950 274 7000 364
70 59 260 155 1000 278 8000 367
75 63 270 159 1100 285 9000 368
80 66 280 162 1200 291 10000 370
85 70 290 165 1300 297 15000 375
90 73 300 169 1400 302 20000 377
95 76 320 175 1500 306 30000 379
100 80 340 181 1600 310 40000 380
110 86 360 186 1700 313 50000 381
120 92 380 191 1800 317 75000 382
130 97 400 196 1900 320 100000 384
 4.5 DATA ;

Definition of DATA ;
Data are distinct pieces of information,
usually formatted in a special way.
Strictly speaking, data is the plural
of datum, a single piece of information. In
practice, however, people use data as
both the singular and plural form of the
word.
 4.5 DATA ;

1. PRIMARY DATA, by contrast, are

collected by the investigator conducting
the research. (borang soal selidik, survey,
temuduga, perbincangan kumpulan fokus).
2. SECONDARY DATA for social science
include censuses, information collected
by government departments,
organisational records (data dari BHT,
rekod, registry, jurnal-jurnal dsb).
 RESEARCH DATA MAY INCLUDE ALL OF THE
FOLLOWING:
1. Text or Word documents, spreadsheets
2. Laboratory notebooks, field notebooks, diaries
3. Questionnaires, transcripts, codebooks
4. Audiotapes, videotapes
5. Photographs, films
6. Test responses
7. Slides, artifacts, specimens, samples
8. Collection of digital objects acquired and generated during
the process of research
9. Data files
10. Database contents including video, audio, text, images
11. Models, algorithms, scripts
12. Contents of an application such as input, output, log files for
analysis software, simulation software, schemas
13. Methodologies and workflows
 4.5 DATA ;

6 STEP HOW TO PROCESS THE DATA ;

1. CODING ; adalah memberikan label kepada bentuk
nombor kepada jawapan maklumat responden.
2. EDITING ; adalah proses memeriksa kesempurnaan
data kajian.
3. CATEGORIZING ; adalah menentukan variable
tersebut berbentuk skala, nominal atau ordinal.
4. CLEANING DATA ; adalah membuat pemeriksaan
semula data-data yang abnormal.
5. CREATING DATA FILE ; adalah membuat satu sistem
file data yang sistematik dan selamat disimpan oleh
pengkaji.
6. DATA ENTRY ; pengkaji memasukan data-data ke
dalam software untuk dianalisa.
• Menguji keberkesanan instrument.
• Menguji sensitivity instrument.
• Menguji tempoh , masa .
Menambahbaik/mengekalkan reliability instrument.

4.5 DATA ;
Software to processing data research ;
QUALITATIVE QUANTITATIVE
STUDY ; STUDY ;
ATLAS.ti SPSS
NVivo Epi Info
Stata
SAS
R
 PILOT STUDY :

A pilot study, pilot project
or pilot experiment is a small scale
preliminary study conducted in order to
evaluate feasibility, time, cost,
adverse events, and effect size
(statistical variability) in an attempt to
predict an appropriate sample size and
improve upon the study design prior
to performance of a full-scale. 
 Important of pilot study in research :

1. To ensure instrument are suitable

and achiveable the objective
2. To evaluate feasibility, time, cost,
adverse events, and effect size .
3. To predict an appropriate sample
size
4. To improve upon the study design
prior to perfoment of a full-scale.
etc....
 PILOT STUDY :

KEPENTINGAN PILOT STUDY ;

1. Adalah pra ujian design, instrument dan
kaedah pengumpulan data.
2. Menguji keberkesanan instrument.
3. Menguji sensitivity instrument.
4. Menguji tempoh , masa .
5. Menambahbaik/mengekalkan reliability
instrument.
6. Pilot study procedures to improve the internal
validity of a questionnaire
 PILOT STUDY :

Sumber :
http://dissertationrecipes.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/04/Conducting-
Pilot-Studies.pdf
 Ethical consideration in making research :

1. Informed consent (verbal/written)

○ Inform your respondents fully about the study and possible

risk / benefit. /

○ Freedom to withdraw at any time. /

○ The respondent’s choice not to participate must not affect the

health care provided.
2. Confidentiality and anonymity is maintained
3. Permission to use instrument (e.g. reproduce/ adaptation/
adaptation of questionnaire)
4. Ethical Clearance

○ NMRR

○ MREC

○ institution approval
5. Protection of subject
 4.6 ETHICAL CONSIDERATION :

1. Borang persetujuan responden

(Informed consent).
2. Hak untuk menarik diri.
3. Kerahsian / kesulitan.
4. Tidak memudaratkan (do no harm).
5. Kelulusan oleh badan bertauliah.
 4.6 TYPES OF INSTRUMENTS :

Instrument is the generic term that researchers

use for a measurement device (survey, test,
questionnaire, etc.).
To help distinguish between instrument and
instrumentation, consider that the instrument
is the device and instrumentation is the
course of action (the process of developing,
testing, and using the device).
4.6 TYPES OF INSTRUMENTS :
 Researcher-completed Subject-completed
Instruments Instruments

Rating scales Questionnaires

Interview schedules/guides Self-checklists
Tally sheets Attitude scales
Flowcharts Personality inventories
Performance checklists Achievement/aptitude tests
Time-and-motion logs Projective devices
Observation forms Sociometric devices
 4.6 RELIABILITY
TOOLS:

Reliability can be thought of as consistency. Does the instrument

consistently measure what it is intended to measure? It is not
possible to calculate reliability; however, there are four general
estimators that you may encounter in reading research:
1. Inter-Rater/Observer Reliability: The degree to which different
raters/observers give consistent answers or estimates.
2. Test-Retest Reliability: The consistency of a measure evaluated
over time.
3. Parallel-Forms Reliability: The reliability of two tests
constructed the same way, from the same content.
4. Internal Consistency Reliability: The consistency of results
across items, often measured with Cronbach’s Alpha.
 4.6 VALIDITY TOOLS:

Validity is the extent to which an instrument measures what

it is supposed to measure and performs as it is
designed to perform.
It is rare, if nearly impossible, that an instrument be
100% valid, so validity is generally measured in
degrees.
As a process, validation involves collecting and analyzing
data to assess the accuracy of an instrument.
There are numerous statistical tests and measures to
assess the validity of quantitative instruments, which
generally involves pilot testing. The remainder of this
discussion focuses on external validity and content
validity.
 4.6 VALIDITY TOOLS:

1. EXTERNAL VALIDITY is the extent to which the results of a study can

be generalized from a sample to a population. Establishing eternal
validity for an instrument, then, follows directly from sampling. Recall
that a sample should be an accurate representation of a population,
because the total population may not be available. An instrument that
is externally valid helps obtain population generalizability, or the degree
to which a sample represents the population.
2. CONTENT VALIDITY refers to the appropriateness of the content of an
instrument. In other words, do the measures (questions, observation
logs, etc.) accurately assess what you want to know? This is
particularly important with achievement tests. Consider that a test
developer wants to maximize the validity of a unit test for 7th grade
mathematics. This would involve taking representative questions from
each of the sections of the unit and evaluating them against the
desired outcomes.
 TYPE OF QUESTIONAIRE :

1. OPEN FORMAT QUESTION ; Open format

questions or open-ended questions give your
audience an opportunity to express their opinions in
a free-flowing manner.
2. CLOSE FORMAT QUESTIONAIRE ; Multiple
choice questions, where respondents are restricted
to choose among any of the given multiple choice
answers are known as closed format or closed-
ended questions.
1. LEADING QUESTION

2. IMPORTANT QUESTION
3. LIKERT QUESTION

4. DICHOTOMUS QUESTION
5 . BIPOLAR QUESTION

6 . RATING SCALE QUESTION

7 . PROPABLE QUESTION
 RESEARCH LIMITATIONS
;

1. The size of the sample may

be relatively small
2. Qualitative research is not allowing
the measurement of the examinedproblems
3. Research may be influenced by factors which
were unknown by the researcher at the
certain time
4. Participants may refuse to speak against
their organizations
 BIAS IN RESEACRH :
● Bias is defined as any tendency
which prevents unprejudiced
consideration of a question .
● In research, bias occurs when
“systematic error [is] introduced into
sampling or testing by selecting or
encouraging one outcome or
answer over others”
OVER 50 TYPES OF BIAS AFFECTING CLINICAL RESEARCH HAVE
BEEN DESCRIBED.
MAJOR TYPES OF BIAS
1. SELECTION BIAS
● Occurs when the selection of subjects into a sample or their allocation to a
treatment group produces a sample that is not representative of the
population, or treatment groups that are systematically different prevented
by random selection and random allocation

2. DETECTION BIAS
● Occurs when observations in one group are not sought as diligently as in
the other prevented by observer blinding

3. OBSERVER BIAS
● Occurs when the observer is able to be subjective about the outcome
prevented by observer blinding and outcome measure design
4. RECALL BIAS
● Occurs when patients know which group they have been
allocated to, which influences the way they report past history
and symptoms ie. if patient knows the are in the placebo group
they may exaggerate their ‘untreated’ symptoms prevented
by patient blinding

5. RESPONSE BIAS
● Occurs when patients who enrol in a trial may not represent
those of the population as a whole
● ie. the obese patients who enrol in a weight loss medication
trial may be more motivated than those in the general
population prevention -> random sampling from population
[5] DATA ANALYSIS – 1 hr

5.1 Prepering the data

5.2 Data management (coding ,
editing , entry)
 5.1 PREPERING THE DATA

1. Numbering and organize of data/each of the

instrument return.
Eg : 0001/Oktober2016 , 0002/Oktober 2016
……….

2. Installation of STATISTICAL PACKAGE FOR SOCIAL

SCIENCES (SPSS) Ver 22.0
 5.2 DATA MANAGEMENT
(Basic coding , editing , entry)

1. CODING , ( eg ; male =1 , female =2 )

2. EDITING , ( type in spss data sheet )
3. ENTRY , ( entry data in spss data sheet )
[6] REPORT WRITING – BOOKLET of
STUDENT SHORT PROJECT (SSP) – 3
hr

6.1 Project proposal

6.2 Report writing
6.3 Presenting a project report
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 01
OVERVIEW
You can enter a subtitle here if you
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Introduction

Neptune is the farthest planet

from the Sun and also the fourth-
largest by diameter in the entire
Solar System
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Exam
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Mercury Mars
Mercury is the smallest planet Despite being red, Mars is a
cold place

Saturn Venus
It’s composed of hydrogen and Venus is the second planet
helium from the Sun
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Features of Mercury
the topic It’s the closest planet to
the Sun

Jupiter
Jupiter is the biggest
Venus is the planet
second plan
et
from the Su
n
Mars
Mars is actually a cold
place
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 10% 50% 40%
Despite being red, Mars is Saturn is the only planet Venus has a beautiful
a cold place with rings name, but it’s hot
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Practical uses of
this subject Mercury
Mercury is the closest
planet to the Sun

Jupiter
Venus is the
second plan Jupiter is the biggest
et
from the Su
n planet of them all
Did you h,
know this? d
o
i fy t h is grap
To mo it, follow the
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35% 65%

Mercury is a small Jupiter is a big

Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 3 planet planet
31,500
Big numbers catch your
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Neptune is the fourth- Jupiter is a gas giant and
largest planet in the Solar the biggest planet in the
System Solar System
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Mercury is the Saturn is the ringed
smallest planet planet

Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4

Venus has a beautiful Mars is a very cold

name place
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Despite being red, Mars is
actually a cold place full of
iron oxide dust
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 Overview
diagram

30%

Mercury is a small Venus is a hot Mars is a cold Only Saturn has

planet planet place rings
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Saturn is a gas
giant

Mars is a cold
place
 A pic
reinfo ture
rces t
conce he
pt
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Data review

Study 1 Study 2 Study 3 Study 1 Study 2 Study 3

0.3 1.2 4.5 2.5 6.9 1.6

1.4 0.6 7.8 3.5 7.7 1.8

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 Review of concepts

Mercury Venus Mars

Mercury is the Venus has a Mars is actually a cold
Smallest planet beautiful name place

Jupiter Saturn Neptune

Jupiter is the biggest Saturn is the Neptune is very far
planet ringed one from us
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Exercise

a b e autiful
h as
Venus and is the
name net fro
m
n d p la
seco Despite being red, Mars is
the Sun actually a cold place
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Assignment

l a n et has a
p
Which ame and is
ul n
beautif d one from
on
the sec Sun
the
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 Fonts & colors used
This presentation has been made using the following fonts:

Concert One
(https://fonts.google.com/specimen/Concert+One)

Roboto Mono
(https://fonts.google.com/specimen/Roboto+Mono)

#a8d68c #f1c232 #b44141 #df7070 #7a9e64 #595959

 Storyset
Create your Story with our illustrated concepts. Choose the style you like the most, edit its colors, pick
the background and layers you want to show and bring them to life with the animator panel! It will boost
your presentation. Check out How it works.

Pana Amico Bro Rafiki Cuate

 Use our editable graphic resources...
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Group the resource again when you’re done. You can also look for more infographics on Slidesgo.
 JANUARY FEBRUARY MARCH APRIL MAY JUNE

PHASE 1

Task 1

Task 2

PHASE 2

Task 1

Task 2

JANUARY FEBRUARY MARCH APRIL

PHASE
1

Task 1

Task 2
 ...and our sets of editable icons
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In Google Slides, you can also use Flaticon’s extension, allowing you to customize and add even more icons.
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