Chapter 04

Burton's Microbiology
for the Health Sciences

Chapter 4. Microbial Diversity
Part 1: Acellular and Procaryotic Microbes
Copyright © 2011 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

Chapter 4 Outline
• Introduction
• Acellular Infectious Agents
– Viruses
– Viroids and Prions
• The Domain Bacteria
– Characteristics
– Unique Bacteria
– Photosynthetic Bacteria
• The Domain Archaea
Categories of Microorganisms
• Microbes can be divided into those that are truly cellular

(bacteria, archaea, algae, protozoa, and fungi) and those
that are acellular (viruses, viroids, and prions).
• Cellular microbes (microorganisms) can be divided into
those that are procaryotic (bacteria and archaea) and
those that are eucaryotic (algae, protozoa, and fungi).
• Viruses, viroids and prions are often referred to as
acellular microbes or infectious particles.

Acellular Microbes
• Viruses
– Complete virus particles are called virions.
– Most viruses are from 10 to 300 nm in diameter.
– Viruses infect humans, animals, plants, fungi,
protozoa, algae and bacterial cells.
– Some viruses, called oncogenic viruses or
oncoviruses, cause specific types of cancer.
– A typical virion consists of a genome of either DNA or
RNA, surrounded by a capsid (protein coat) which is
composed of protein units called capsomeres.
– Some viruses (enveloped viruses) have an outer
envelope composed of lipids and polysaccharides.
Acellular Microbes, cont.
Viruses have 5 properties that distinguish them from living
cells:
1. They possess either DNA or RNA – living cells
possess both.
2. They are unable to replicate on their own.
3. Unlike cells, they do not divide by binary fission,
mitosis, or meiosis.
4. They lack the genes and enzymes necessary for
energy production.
5. They depend on the ribosomes, enzymes, and
metabolites of the host cell for protein and nucleic
acid production.

• Viruses are classified by:
• Type of genetic material (either DNA or RNA)
• Shape and size of capsid
• Number of capsomeres
• Presence or absence of an envelope
• Type of host it infects
• Disease it produces
• Target cell(s)
• Immunologic/antigenic properties

Viruses
– There are 4 categories of viruses, based on the type
of nucleic acid that they possess. Most viral genomes
are of the first two types.
• Double-stranded DNA viruses
• Single-stranded RNA viruses
• Single-stranded DNA viruses
• Double-stranded RNA viruses
– Most viral genomes are circular molecules, but some
are linear.

Herpesviruses acquiring their envelopes as they
leave a host cell’s nucleus by budding.

Comparative sizes
of virions, their
nucleic acids, and
bacteria.

Bacteriophages

Viruses that infect bacteria are known as bacteriophages or
simply phages.

There are two categories of bacteriophages: virulent
bacteriophages and temperate bacteriophages.

Virulent bacteriophages always cause what is known as the
lytic cycle, which ends with the destruction of the bacterial
cell.

The 5 steps in the lytic cycle are attachment, penetration,
biosynthesis, assembly, and release.

A partially lysed cell of Vibrio cholerae with
attached virions of phage CP-T1.

The bacteriophage T4 is an Viral DNA enters the
assembly of protein components. cell through the core.
20
facets,
filled with
DNA

Animal Viruses
– The steps in multiplication of animal viruses are:
• Attachment
• Penetration
• Uncoating
• Biosynthesis
• Assembly
– Animal viruses escape from their host cells either by
lysis of the cell or budding. Viruses that escape by
budding become enveloped viruses.
Multiplication of Herpes Simplex on HeLa Cells
Adsorption Penetration Penetration Penetration
Uncoating Uncoating Uncoating


• Latent Virus Infections
– Viral infections in which the virus is able to hide from
a host’s immune system by entering cells and
remaining dormant.
– Herpes viral infections are examples.
– Once acquired, herpes virus infections (e.g., those
that cause cold sores, genital herpes, and
chickenpox/shingles) never completely go away; for
example, chickenpox may be followed, years later,
by shingles - both the result of the same virus.

• Antiviral Agents
– Antibiotics are not effective against viral infections.
– Antiviral agents are drugs that are used to treat viral
infections.
– These agents interfere with virus-specific enzymes
and virus production by disrupting critical phases in
viral multiplication or inhibiting synthesis of viral
DNA, RNA, or proteins.

• Oncogenic Viruses or Oncoviruses
– Viruses that cause cancer.
– Examples include Epstein-Barr virus, human
papillomaviruses, and HTLV-1.
• Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)
– The cause of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome
(AIDS).
– It is an enveloped, single-stranded RNA virus.
– The primary targets for HIV are CD4+ cells.

Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)

• Viroids and Prions (smaller and less complex infectious

particles than viruses)
– Viroids
• Viroids are short, naked fragments of single-
stranded RNA, which can interfere with the
metabolism of plant cells.
• Viroids are transmitted between plants in the same
manner as viruses.
• Examples of plant diseases caused by viroids:
potato spindle tuber and citrus exocortis.

• Prions
– Prions are small infectious proteins that cause fatal
neurologic diseases in animals; examples: Scrapie,
Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (“Mad Cow
Disease”) and Creutzfeldt-Jacob disease.
– Of all pathogens, prions are the most resistant to
disinfectants.
– The mechanism by which prions cause disease
remains a mystery.

The Domain Bacteria
Characteristics
• Bacteria are divided into 3 major phenotypic categories:

– Those that are Gram-negative and have a cell wall
– Those that are Gram-positive and have a cell wall
– Those that lack a cell wall (Mycoplasma spp.)
• Characteristics of bacteria used in classification and
identification include: cell morphology, staining reactions,
motility, colony morphology, atmospheric requirements,
nutritional requirements, biochemical and metabolic
activities, enzymes that the organism produces,
pathogenicity, and genetic composition.

The Domain Bacteria
Cell Morphology
• There are 3 basic categories of bacteria, based on shape:

– Cocci (round bacteria)
– Bacilli (rod-shaped bacteria)
– Curved and spiral-shaped bacteria
• Cocci may be seen singly or in pairs (diplococci), chains
(streptococci), clusters (staphylococci), packets of 4
(tetrads), or packets of 8 (octads).
• The average coccus is about 1 µm in diameter.
• Some cocci have “coccus” in their name.
Categories of Bacteria Based on the
Shape of Their Cells

Morphologic Arrangements of Cocci
Gram-positive Staphylococcus aureus SEM of Streptococcus mutans

in clusters. illustrating cocci in chains.

Diagram Showing Various Forms of
Bacteria That Might be Observed in Gram-
Stained Smears

The Domain Bacteria
Cell Morphology, cont.
• Bacilli
– Often referred to as rods; may be short or long, thick
or thin, and pointed or with curved or blunt ends.
– They may occur singly, in pairs (diplobacilli), in
chains (streptobacilli), in long filaments, or branched.
– An average sized bacillus is 1 x 3 µm.
– Extremely short bacilli are called coccobacilli.
– Examples of medically important bacilli:
Escherichia, Klebsiella, and Proteus spp.
Pseudomonas, Haemophilus, and Bacillus spp.
The Domain Bacteria
Cell Morphology, cont.
• Curved and Spiral-Shaped Bacteria
– Examples of curved bacteria:
• Vibrio spp.
• Campylobacter spp.
• Helicobacter spp.
– Examples of spiral-shaped bacteria:
• Treponema spp.
• Borrelia spp.

Spiral-Shaped Bacteria
Borrelia hermsii in a
stained blood smear; a
cause of relapsing fever.

Domain Bacteria
Staining Procedures
• Three Major Categories of Staining Procedures

1. Simple stains
2. Structural staining procedures
• Capsule stains
• Spore stains
• Flagella stains
3. Differential staining procedures
• Gram and acid-fast staining procedures
Domain Bacteria
Staining Procedures, cont.
• Bacterial smears must be fixed prior to staining

• The fixation process serves to kill organisms, preserve
their morphology, and anchors the smear to the slide
• The two most common types of fixation:
– Heat-fixation; not a standardized technique;
excess heat will distort bacterial morphology
– Methanol-fixation; a standardized technique; the
preferred method

Simple Bacterial Staining Technique

Domain Bacteria
The Gram Staining Procedure
• Divides bacteria into 2 major groups:
– Gram-positive (bacteria are blue-to-purple)
– Gram-negative (bacteria are pink-to-red)
• The final Gram reaction (positive or negative) depends upon
the organism’s cell wall structure.
– The cell walls of Gram-positive bacteria have a thick layer
of peptidoglycan, making it difficult to remove the crystal
violet-iodine complex.
– Gram-negative organisms have a thin layer of
peptidoglycan, making it easier to remove the crystal
violet; the cells are subsequently stained with safranin.

Various Gram-Positive Bacteria
Chains of streptococci in Streptococcus pneumoniae in

smear from broth culture. blood culture.

Spores
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A bacillus, Clostridium perfringens, Clostridium tetani in a smear from

in a smear from a broth culture. a broth culture (note terminal spores on
some cells).

Epithelial cells
Many Gram-positive bacteria

Gram-Negative Bacteria
Gram-negative bacilli in a smear Loosely coiled Gram-negative

from a bacterial colony. spirochetes, Borrelia burgdorferi,
the cause of Lyme disease.

Domain Bacteria
Staining Procedures, cont.
• Some bacteria are neither consistently purple nor pink
after Gram staining; they are known as Gram-variable
bacteria; example, Mycobacterium spp.
• Mycobacterium spp. are often identified using the acid-
fast stain.
• The acid-fast stain
– Carbol fuchsin is the red dye that is driven through
the bacterial cell wall
– Heat is used to soften the waxes in the cell wall
– Because mycobacteria are not decolorized by the
acid-alcohol mixture, they are said to be acid-fast

Domain Bacteria
Acid-Fast Mycobacteria
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Many acid-fast mycobacteria in a Acid-fast bacilli in a digested

liver biopsy. sputum specimen.

Domain Bacteria
Motility
• If a bacterium is able to “swim,” it is said to be motile.
• Bacterial motility is most often associated with flagella;
less often with axial filaments.
• Most spiral-shaped bacteria and about 50% of bacilli are
motile; cocci are generally nonmotile.
• Motility can be demonstrated by stabbing the bacteria
into a tube of semisolid medium or by using the hanging-
drop technique.

Semisolid Agar Method for Determining Motility
Nonmotile Motile

Hanging-Drop Prep for Study of Living Bacteria
Depression slide Depression slide with coverglass
Side view of hanging-drop prep.


Domain Bacteria
Colony Morphology
• A bacterial colony contains millions of organisms.
• Colony morphology (appearance of the colony) varies
from one species to another.
• Colony morphology includes: size, color, overall shape,
elevation, and the appearance of the edge or margin of
the colony.
• Colony morphology also includes the results of enzymatic
activity on various types of media.
• As is true for cell morphology and staining
characteristics, colony morphology is an important “clue”
to the identification of bacteria.
Size of colonies is
determined by the
organism’s generation
time and is another
important characteristic
of a particular bacterial
species.
Formation of a bacterial
colony on solid growth
medium; here, the
generation time is assumed
to be 30 minutes.

Domain Bacteria
Atmospheric Requirements
• Bacteria can be classified on the basis of their

atmospheric requirements, including their relationship to
O2 and CO2
• With respect to O2, bacterial isolates can be classified as:
– Obligate aerobes
– Microaerophilic aerobes
– Facultative anaerobes
– Aerotolerant anaerobes
– Obligate anaerobes
• Capnophilic organisms grow best in the presence of
increased concentrations of CO2 (usually 5 to 10%)
Domain Bacteria
Nutritional Requirements
• All bacteria need some form of the elements carbon,

hydrogen, oxygen, sulfur, phosphorus, and nitrogen for
growth.
• Some bacteria require special elements (e.g., calcium,
iron, or zinc).
• Organisms with especially demanding nutritional
requirements are said to be fastidious (“fussy”).
• The nutritional needs of a particular organism are usually
characteristic for that species and are sometimes
important clues to its identity.

Domain Bacteria
Biochemical and Metabolic Activities
• As bacteria grow, they produce many waste products and

secretions, some of which are enzymes.
• Pathogenic strains of many bacteria, like staphylococci
and streptococci, can be tentatively identified by the
enzymes they secrete.
• In particular environments, some bacteria produce gases
such as carbon dioxide or hydrogen sulfide.
• To identify bacteria in the lab, they are inoculated into
various substrates (i.e., carbohydrates and amino acids)
to determine whether they possess the enzymes
necessary to break down those substrates.
Domain Bacteria
Pathogenicity
• Many pathogens are able to cause disease because they

possess capsules, pili, or endotoxins, or because they
secrete exotoxins and exoenzymes that damage cells and
tissues.
• Frequently, pathogenicity is tested by injecting the
organism into mice or cell cultures.
• Examples of some common pathogenic bacteria:
– Neisseria meningitidis, Salmonella typhi, Shigella
spp., Vibrio cholerae, Yersina pestis, Treponema
pallidum

Domain Bacteria
Genetic Composition
• Laboratory identification of bacteria is moving toward

analyzing the organism’s DNA or RNA – techniques
collectively referred to as molecular diagnostic
procedures.
– The composition of the genetic material (DNA) of an
organism is unique to each species.
– DNA probes make it possible to identify an isolate
without relying on phenotypic characteristics.
• Through the use of 16S rRNA sequencing, the degree of
relatedness between 2 different bacteria can be
determined.
Unique Bacteria
• Rickettsias, chlamydias, and mycoplasmas are bacteria,
but they do not possess all the attributes of typical
bacterial cells.
• Rickettsias and chlamydias have a Gram-negative type of
cell wall and are obligate intracellular pathogens (i.e.,
they must live within a host cell; they cannot grow on
artificial culture media).
– Rickettsias have “leaky membranes.”
– Chlamydias are “energy parasites,” meaning they
prefer to use ATP molecules produced by their host
cell.

Rickettsia prowazekii, the cause of epidemic
louseborne typhus.

Unique Bacteria, cont.
• Mycoplasmas
– Smallest of the cellular microbes
– Lack a cell wall and therefore assume many shapes
(they are pleomorphic)
– In humans, pathogenic mycoplasmas cause primary
atypical pneumonia and genitourinary infections
– Because they have no cell wall, they are resistant to
drugs like penicillin that attack cell walls
– They produce tiny “fried egg” colonies on artificial
media

SEM of Mycoplasma pneumoniae

Photosynthetic Bacteria
• Photosynthetic bacteria include purple bacteria, green

bacteria, and cyanobacteria; they all use light as an
energy source, but not in the same way.
– Purple and green bacteria do not produce oxygen,
whereas cyanobacteria do.
– Photosynthesis that produces oxygen is called
oxygenic photosynthesis.
– Photosynthesis that does not produce oxygen is
called anoxygenic photosynthesis.

The Domain Archaea
• Archaea (meaning ancient) were discovered in 1977;

they are procaryotic organisms.
• Genetically, archaea are more closely related to
eucaryotes than they are to bacteria.
• Archaea vary widely in shape; some live in extreme
environments, such as extremely acidic, extremely hot,
or extremely salty environments.
• Archaea possess cell walls, but their cell walls do not
contain peptidoglycan (in contrast, all bacterial cell walls
contain peptidoglycan).

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Burton's Microbiology

for the Health Sciences

Part 1: Acellular and Procaryotic Microbes

Copyright © 2011 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

• Microbes can be divided into those that are truly cellular

Copyright © 2011 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

Copyright © 2011 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

Copyright © 2011 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

Copyright © 2011 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

Copyright © 2011 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

Copyright © 2011 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

Copyright © 2011 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

Copyright © 2011 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

Copyright © 2011 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

Copyright © 2011 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

Copyright © 2011 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

Adsorption Penetration Penetration Penetration

Uncoating Uncoating Uncoating

Copyright © 2011 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

Copyright © 2011 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

Copyright © 2011 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

Copyright © 2011 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

Copyright © 2011 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

• Viroids and Prions (smaller and less complex infectious

Copyright © 2011 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

Copyright © 2011 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

• Bacteria are divided into 3 major phenotypic categories:

Copyright © 2011 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

• There are 3 basic categories of bacteria, based on shape:

Copyright © 2011 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

Gram-positive Staphylococcus aureus SEM of Streptococcus mutans

Copyright © 2011 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

Copyright © 2011 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

Copyright © 2011 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

Copyright © 2011 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

Copyright © 2011 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

• Three Major Categories of Staining Procedures

• Bacterial smears must be fixed prior to staining

Copyright © 2011 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

Copyright © 2011 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

Copyright © 2011 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

Chains of streptococci in Streptococcus pneumoniae in

Copyright © 2011 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

A bacillus, Clostridium perfringens, Clostridium tetani in a smear from

Copyright © 2011 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

Many Gram-positive bacteria

Copyright © 2011 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

Copyright © 2011 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

Gram-negative bacilli in a smear Loosely coiled Gram-negative

Copyright © 2011 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

Copyright © 2011 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

Many acid-fast mycobacteria in a Acid-fast bacilli in a digested

Copyright © 2011 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

Copyright © 2011 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

Copyright © 2011 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

Copyright © 2011 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

Depression slide Depression slide with coverglass

Side view of hanging-drop prep.

Copyright © 2011 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

Copyright © 2011 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins