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C Programming

C is a second-generation as well as a thirdgeneration language. Multics started out as a joint venture between MIT, GE, and Bell Labs. In 1971, Doug McIlroy created the systemPs first high-level language.

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C Programming

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C Programming

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The Genesis of C
Multics (Multiplexed Information and Computing Service) is a mainframe timesharing operating system begun in 1965. Multics started out as a joint venture between MIT, General Electric, and Bell Labs. It was a research project, and was an important influence on operating system development. By 1969, Bell Labs management, and even the researchers came to believe that the promise of Multics could be fulfilled only too late, and too expensively.
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The Genesis of C
Even before the GE-645 Multics machine was removed from the premises of Bell Labs, an informal group, led by Ken Thompson, had begun investigating alternatives. In 1969, Ken Thompson and Dennis Ritchie designed a file system for the Bell Labs in order to provide a more convenient environment for programming. This file system evolved into an early version of the UNIX Operating System.

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The Genesis of C
This file system was implemented on a PDP-7 computer, and in 1971, on a PDP-11 computer. Not long after Unix first ran on the PDP-7 in 1969, Doug McIlroy created the systems first high-level language, an implementation of McClures TMG (TransMoGrifiers). TMG is a language for writing compilers in a top-down, recursive-descent style that combines context-free syntax notation with procedural elements.

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The Genesis of C
Challenged by McIlroys feat in reproducing TMG, Thompson decided that Unix possibly it had not even been named yet needed a systems programming language. In a rapidly scuttled attempt at Fortran, he created, instead, a language of his own, which he called B. Language B was in turn influenced by BCPL (Basic Control Programming Language) of Martin Richards. Its name most probably represents a contraction of BCPL.
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The Genesis of C
In 1971, Dennis Ritchie made extensions to language B, and also rewrote its compiler to generate PDP-11 machine instructions instead of threaded code. Thus, the transition from B to C was contemporaneous with the creation of a compiler capable of producing programs fast and small enough to compete with assembly language. By early 1973, the essentials of modern C were complete.

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The Genesis of C
The language and compiler were strong enough to permit the rewriting of the Unix kernel for the PDP-11 in C during the summer of 1973. Also, during this period, the compiler was retargeted to other nearby machines, particularly the Honeywell 635, and IBM 360/370. Because the language could not live in isolation, the prototypes for the modern libraries of the C language were developed.
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Nature of the C Language

From its evolution, it was natural for C to exhibit the powerful low-level features of second generation languages like pointers, bit manipulation etc. It also supports conditional constructs, loop constructs, a rich list of operators, and a variety of data types that is so typical of any third generation language. The combined features of second and third generation language make C a very powerful and a flexible language.
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Nature of the C Language

These features of C make it possible to use the language for systems programming like development of compilers, interpreters, operating systems, graphics and general utilities. It is also ideal for a host of applications in the commercial environment. Much of the Unix operating system has been written in the C language.

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Block Structured Nature of C

The basic unit of code in C is written as a C function, that can in turn be used as building blocks to write more C functions, thus facilitating modular programming. C provides all features of structured programming such as writing programs as functions, functions returning values, functions defining its own local variables etc. C language offers only a handful of functions that form the core of the language; rest of the functions, available as part of the language libraries, are developed using the core functions, thus expanding the scope of the language.
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Block Structured Nature of C

This promotes functionally cohesive code and therefore, facilitates reusability. Thus standalone functions can be written as part of a library that can be deployed in other applications.

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The C Language: Features

Pointers: In addition to referencing a memory location through a variable name, the C language allows reference to a memory location by its internal address, or byte number called a pointer. Memory Allocation: Generally, in most programming languages, memory is assigned to a variable name at the time of definition. C allows dynamic allocation of memory; i.e., a C program can request the operating system to release memory for the use of the program at the time of execution.
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Since the fundamental data types are implemented at the machine level, their storage requirement is machinedependent.
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Fundamental Data Types

The type int means that the variables listed are integers. The range of both int and float depends on the machine you are using; 16-bits ints, which lie between -32768 and +32767, are common, as are 32-bit ints. Floating point variables on the other hand, are those that have a decimal part. A float number is typically a 32-bit quantity, with at least six significant digits, and magnitude between about 10-38 and 1038. Character variables, on the other hand, occupy a single byte of storage.
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Variations on Fundamental Data Types

C provides several other data types besides int and float, including: short: short integer long: long integer double: double-precision floating point The size of these variables is also machine-dependent.

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Defining Data
The general format for defining a variable of a data type is [data type] [variable name] All data is normally defined at the beginning of a function. The definition:
char var; defines a memory location of size one byte, of character type, referred to as var.

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Defining Data
Data Definition char x, y Data Type char Memory Defined x y Size 1 byte 1 byte Value Assigned -

int m; int a, m=22;

int

m a

4 bytes 4 bytes

22 -

float num float num1= 9.67

float float

num num1

4 bytes 4 bytes

9.67

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#include <conio.h> #include <stdio.h> main( ) { char ch; ch = getch( ); fflush(stdin); putch(ch); }

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Character-Based I/O
The macro getchar( ) by default accepts a character from the keyboard. Hence, it does not need any parameters. The macro putchar( ) is used to display the character on to standard output. It takes the character to be output as an argument.

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Conditional Constructs
Relational Operators: Operator
== != < > <= >=
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Meaning
Equal to Not equal to Less than Greater than Less than or equal to Greater than or equal to
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The if-else Construct

The following function checks whether the character entered by the user is a star (*) character. #include <stdio.h> #include <conio.h> main( ) { char ch; ch = getchar( ); fflush(stdin); if (ch == '*') puts ("You have entered the star character"); else puts ("You have not entered the star character"); }
start

ch =

Input ch

is ch = *

Print *

Not a *

stop
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The if-else Construct

The earlier function can also be alternately written as: #include <stdio.h> #include <conio.h> main( ) { char ch; ch = getchar( ); fflush(stdin); if (ch == '*') puts ("You have entered the star character"); else puts ("You have not entered the star character"); }

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Cascading if-else Construct

The cascading if-else construct is also known as the multiple if-else construct. On the first condition evaluating to false, the else part of the first condition consists of another if statement that is evaluated for a condition. If this condition evaluates to false, the else part of this if condition consists of another if statement that is evaluated for a condition, and so on.

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Cascading if-else Construct

#include <stdio.h> main( ) { char chr; chr = getchar( ); if (chr == '0') puts("You entered the number 0"); else if (chr == '1') puts("You entered the number 1"); else if (chr == '2') puts("You entered the number 2");

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Cascading if-else Construct

else if (chr == '3') puts("You entered the number 3"); else if (chr == '4') puts("You entered the number 4"); else if (chr == '5') puts("You entered the number 5"); else if (chr == '6') puts("You entered the number 6"); else if (chr == '7') puts("You entered the number 7"); else if (chr == '8') puts("You entered the number 8"); else if (chr == '9') puts("You entered the number 9"); else puts("You did not enter a number"); }
C Programming ver 2.0

no yes no yes no yes

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Nested if Construct
A nested if statement is encountered if the statement to be executed after a condition evaluates to true is another if statement. Both the outer if statement and the inner if statement have to evaluate to true for the statement following the inner if condition to be executed.
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ye s no

ye s

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Nested if Construct: Example

The following program determines whether the character entered is an uppercase or a lowercase alphabet.
#include<stdio.h> main( ) { char ch; ch = getchar( ); fflush(stdin); if (ch >= 'A') if (ch <= 'Z') puts ("Its an Uppercase alphabet"); else if (ch >= 'a') if (ch <= 'z')

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Nested if Construct: Example

puts ("Its a lowercase alphabet"); else puts ("Input character > z"); else puts ("Input character greater than Z but less than a"); else puts ("Input character less than A"); }

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Using Braces to Improve Readability

#include< stdio.h> main( ) { char ch; ch = getchar( ); fflush(stdin); if (ch >= A) { if (ch <= Z) puts (Its an Uppercase alphabet); else if (ch >= a) { if (inp <= z) puts (Its a lowercase alphabet); else puts (Input character > z); }
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Using Braces to Improve Readability

Iterative Constructs - The while Loop

In a while loop, the loop condition is written at the top followed by the body of the loop.
Evaluate Condition

false

Therefore, the loop condition is evaluated first, and if it is true, the loop body is executed. After the execution of the loop body, the condition in the while statement is evaluated again. This repeats until the condition becomes false.
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Operator
NOT AND OR

Notation
! && ||

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The Logical AND Operator

The result of a logical AND operation is true if both operands are true. It has the general form: expression1 && expression2 Which evaluates to 1 (true) if both expression1 and expression2 are 1 (true); otherwise evaluates to false even if one of them evaluates to 0 (false).
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Formatted Output
An example: printf(%c\n, var); The conversion characters and their meanings are:

Conversion character d c s

Meaning The data is converted to decimal The data is treated as a character The data is a string, and characters from the string are printed until a null character is reached, or until the specified number of characters have been exhausted The data is output as float or double with a default precision of 6

f
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Formatted Output
Between the % character and the conversion character, there may be: A minus sign Implying left adjustment of data A digit Implying the minimum width in which the data is to be output. If the data has larger number of characters than the specified width, the width occupied by the output is larger. If the data consists of fewer characters than the specified width, it is padded to the right (if minus sign is specified), or to the left (if no minus sign is specified). If the digit is prefixed with a zero, the padding is done with zeroes instead of blanks Separates the width from the next digit. Specifying the precision, or the maximum number of characters to be output To signify that the data item is a long integer, and not an integer.
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A period A digit l

Formatted Output
Format String %2d %2d %03d %-2d %5s %15s %-15s %f Data 4 224 8 4 Sherlock Holmes Sherlock Holmes Sherlock Holmes 22.44 Output |4| |224| |008| |4 | | Sherlock Holmes| | Sherlock Holmes | | Sherlock Holmes | |22.440000|

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String Input Using scanf( )

Remember that while accepting strings using scanf( ), a space is considered as a string terminator. Hence, scanf( ) cannot be used to accept strings with embedded spaces.
#include<stdio.h> main( ) { char string[40]; printf("Enter a string of maximum 39 characters"); scanf("%s", string); fflush(stdin); printf("%s", string); }
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One-Dimensional Arrays
An array can be defined as a collection of elements of identically typed data items that are stored contiguously in memory. Each array element shares the same name as the array name, but distinguishes itself from other elements in the array using a subscript, or an index. The subscript, or the index of each array element is determined based on the number of offset positions it is from the starting position. The starting offset is taken as 0.
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Array Representation
The declaration int a[10]; defines an array a of size 10, as a block of 10 contiguous elements in memory.

a[0]

a[1]

a[2]

a[3] a[4]

a[5] a[6]

a[7] a[8]

a[9]

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Character Arrays
To define a character array for storing a string of n characters, we would need to define a character array of size n+1 characters. This is because all character arrays are terminated by a NULL character (\0). To define a character array called name for storing a ten-character name, we will define the array as: Char name[11]; where name[0] through name[9] will contain the characters comprising the name, and name[10] will store the NULL character.
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Representation of a Character Array

name

a
name[0]

b
name[1]

c
name[2]

d
name[3]

e
name[4]

f
name[5]

g
name[6]

h
name[7]

i
name[8]

j
name[9]

\0
name[10]

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Array Initialization
Since an array is a set of elements located at contiguous memory locations, its initialization involves moving element by element, or one data at a time into the array. An array is initialized by specifying each element in an initialization list separated by commas. The size of the array, in this case, may or may not be specified. The number of elements stored in the array determines its size.

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Array Initialization Syntax

A character array needs a string terminator, the NULL character (\0) as the last character, whereas integer and float arrays do not need a terminator.
#include<stdio.h> main( ) { char array1[ ] = {A, R, R, A, Y, \0}; char array2[ ] = {ARRAY}; char dayofweek[ ] = {M, T, W, T, F, S, S, \0}; float values[ ] = {100.56, 200.33, 220.44, 400.22, 0}; }

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Array Processing
#include<stdio.h> main( ) { char array1[ ] = {A, R, R, A, Y, \0}; char array2[ ] = {ARRAY}; char dayofweek[ ] = {M, T, W, T, F, S, S, \0}; float values[ ] = {100.56, 200.33, 220.44, 400.22, 0}; int i = 0; printf( String 1 is %s\n, array1); printf( String 2 is %s\n, array2); for( i = 0; dayofweek[i] != \0; i = i +1) printf ( The Day %d in a week is %c\n, i + 1, dayofweek[i]; for( i = 0; values[i] != 0; i = i +1) printf ( The amount %d in a week is %f\n, i + 1, values[i]; }
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Array Initialization Using a for Loop

#include<stdio.h> main( ) { int i, num[50]; for (i = 0; i < 50; i = i + 1) { num[i] = 0; num[i] = i + 1; printf("%d\n",i); } }

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Array Manipulation Using Subscripts

#include<stdio.h> /* displays each element of the array on a new line */ main( ) { int i; char array[11]; printf( "enter a string of maximum 10 characters\n"); gets(array); fflush(stdin); for (i = 0; array[i] != '\0'; i = i +1) printf("Element %d is %c\n", i +1, array[i]); }

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Array Manipulation Using Subscripts

/* this function finds the length of a character string */ #include <stdio.h> main( ) { int i = 0; char string[11]; printf(Enter a string of maximum ten characters\n); gets(string); fflush( stdin); for(i =0; string[i] != \0; i = i + 1) ; printf(The length of the string is %d \n, i); }

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Array Manipulation Using Subscripts

/* this function converts a string to upper case */ #include <stdio.h> main( ) { char string[51]; int i = 0; printf("Enter a string of maximum 50 characters\n"); gets(string); fflush(stdin); while (string[i] != '\0') { if(string[i] >= 'a' && string[i] <= 'z') { string[i] = string[i] - 32; i = i + 1; } } printf("The converted string is %s\n", string); }
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Array Manipulation Using Subscripts

#include <stdio.h> main( ) { int i, start_pos, no_of_chars; char string[101], substring[101]; printf("Enter a string of upto 100 characters\n"); gets(string); fflush( stdin); printf("Enter start position\n"); scanf("%d", &start_pos); fflush(stdin); printf("Enter no. of characters to extract\n"); scanf("%d", &no_of_chars); fflush(stdin); start_pos = start_pos -1; for (i = 0; i < no_of_chars; i = i + 1, start_pos = start_pos + 1) substring[i] = string[start_pos]; substring[i] = '\0'; printf("The substring is %s\n", substring); }
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Array Manipulation Using Subscripts

#include<stdio.h> main( ) { int total=0, int_array[20], i = -1; do { i = i + 1; printf("Enter number(0 to terminate)\n"); scanf("%d", &int_array[i]); }while (int_array[i] != 0); i = 0; while (int_array[i] != 0) { printf("Element number %d is %d\n", i + 1, int_array[i]); total = total + int_array[i]; i = i + 1; } printf("The sum of the numbers in the array is %d \n", total);}
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Array Addressing
In the declaration: char string[11); the name of the array refers to the starting address of the area that gets allocated for storing the elements of the array. Thus, string contains the address of string[0]. In the aforesaid declaration, string refers to the starting position of the array, and the subscript refers to the offset position from the starting position.
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Array Addressing
string 100

100

101

102

103

104

105

106

107

108

109

110

a
0

b
1

c
2

d
3

e
4

f
5

g
6

h
7

i
8

j
9

\0
10

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Array Addressing
In the previous declaration, string represents the starting point of the array, and the subscript refers to the offset position from the starting point. To arrive at the address of the particular element, the compiler applies the following simple formula:
starting address of the array + ( offset position * size of data type) Address of element 4 = 100 + ( 3 * 1) = 100 +3 = 103

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Summary
In this session, you learnt to: Write compound conditions employing the logical operators Write functions that perform formatted input/output Declare, initialize, manipulate, and address one-dimensional arrays

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Explicit Type Conversion

Finally, explicit type conversions can be forced (coerced) in any expression, with a unary operator called a cast. In the construction (type name) expression, the expression is converted to the named type by the conversion rules above. The precise meaning of a cast is as if the expression were assigned to a variable of the specified type, which is then used in place of the whole construction.

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Explicit Type Conversion

Consider the following example: int i, j; double d; d = i / j; /* double assigned the result of the division of two integers */

The problem with the above assignment is that the fractional portion of the above division is lost, and d is effectively assigned the integer quotient of the two integers i and j.

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Explicit Type Conversion

To resolve this, the variable i can be typecast into a double as in: d = (double)i / j; int i is converted to a double using the explicit cast operator. Since one of the operands is a double, the other operand (j) is also converted to a double, and the result is a double. The result is assigned to a double with no side effects. The cast operator can be done only on the right-hand side of an assignment.
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Ternary Operators
if (a > b) z = a; else z = b;

The aforesaid statements evaluate z to the maximum of a and b. The conditional expression, written with the ternary operator ?:, provides an alternate way to write this, and similar constructions. In the expression expr1 ? expr2 : expr3

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Two-dimensional Arrays
col 0 row 0 col 1

col 2

row 1

row 2

r0,c0

r0,c1

r0,c2

r1,c0

r1,c1

r1,c0

r2,c0

r2,c1

r2,c2

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Two-Dimensional Arrays
The Scenario: Consider a situation where you want to record the region-wise, product-wise figures of sales. The regions are A, B and C. The products are X, Y and Z Sales data for the region-wise, product-wise breakup should be shown as follows:

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Two-Dimensional Arrays
Prod X reg A Prod Y Prod Z

reg B

reg C

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Declaring a Two-Dimensional Array

Declaring a two-dimensional array involves two indices, or two subscripts. There will be an extra set of square brackets[ ] to indicate the second subscript, or the second index. To declare a two-dimensional array for accommodating sales data for three regions and three products, we would come out with an array declaration as in: int rp_array[3][3]; /* this array would have nine elements starting at rp_array[0][0], rp_array[1][1].and going on till rp_array[2,2] */
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Initializing Two-Dimensional Arrays

int rp_array[3][3] = {0,0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0 }; To improve the legibility of the initialization, it can be written as: int rp_array[3][3] = { {0,0, 0}, {0, 0, 0}, {0, 0, 0} };
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The Preprocessor Phase

The #define constitutes the preprocessor phase, wherein the value/s specified as part of the macro or #define is substituted into the code prior to compilation. This is also known as macro substitution. #include <stdio.h> #define RG 3 #define PR 3 main( ) { int r_counter, p_counter, rp_array[RG][PR], total_sales = 0; float rp_array_perc[RG][PR]; /* initialization of rp_array using the for loop */ for (r_counter = 0; r_counter < RG; r_counter ++) { for (p_counter = 0; p_counter < PR; p_counter ++) { rp_array[r_counter][p_counter] = 0; } }
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Two-Dimensional Character Arrays

If you were to store an array of 11 names, with each name containing up to a maximum of 30 characters, you would declare it as a two-dimensional character array such as: char name[11][31]; Here, name[0] through name[9] would store character strings representing names of 30 characters each. The first index represents the number of names, and the second index represents the maximum size of each name.

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Initializing Two-Dimensional Character Arrays

char team_india [11][30] = { Akash Chopra, Virendra Sehwag, Rahul Dravid Sachin Tendulkar, V.V.S. Laxman, Yuvraj Singh, Ajit Agarkar, Parthiv Patel, Anil Kumble, L. Balaji, Irfan Pathan }; Copyright Technologies C Programming ver 2.0 Wipro
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Printing Two-Dimensional Character Arrays

main( ) { char team_india [11][30] = { Akash Chopra, Virendra Sehwag, Rahul Dravid Sachin Tendulkar, V.V.S. Laxman, Yuvraj Singh, Ajit Agarkar, Parthiv Patel, Anil Kumble, L. Balaji, Irfan Pathan };

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Printing Two-Dimensional Character Arrays

int i; for( i = 0; i < 11; i ++) { printf(%s, team_india[i]); } }

Particular elements can also be printed from a two dimensional array by using the second subscript. Printf(%c, team_india[10][6] would print the character P from the string Pathan

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Pointer Definition
When a variable is declared (such as int i = 22) in a program, space is reserved in memory for the variable i. To be precise, each variable is assigned a particular memory location referenced by its address. In our case, the integer i would be stored at a specific memory location having the address, say, 1000 (addresses are typically hexadecimal values). The declaration of i can be conceptualized as follows:
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Pointer Definition

variable name value address

i is a named location in memory that can hold an integer and having the address 1000

22 1000

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Pointer Definition
In C, it is possible to manipulate a variable either by its name, or by its address. The address of a variable can be stored in another variable (called a pointer variable), and access can be had to the variable through this pointer variable. A pointer can therefore be defined as a variable that holds the address of another variable. If you want to define a pointer to hold the address of an integer variable, then you must define the pointer as a pointer to an integer.
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Pointer Declaration & Initialization

It is in this sense that a pointer is referred to as a derived data type, as the type of the pointer is based on the type of the data type it is pointing to. For the earlier declaration of the integer variable i, its pointer can be declared as follows: int i, *pointer_to_an_integer; i = 22; pointer_to_an_integer = &i; /* initializing the integer pointer variable (pointer_to_an_integer) with the address of the integer variable i. */
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Pointer Declaration & Initialization

The * operator precedes a pointer operand. In the preceding declaration, int *pointer_to_an_integer; the * operator preceding the variable name marks it out as a pointer declaration, and the data type of the pointer variable begins the pointer declaration. It is obvious from the preceding code snippet that the & operator is used to return the address of a variable. The returned address is stored into a pointer variable of the appropriate type.

It is critical, as a good C programmer, to initialize a pointer as soon as it is declared.

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the integer pointer variable (pointer_to_an_integer) being initialized with the address of the integer variable i.

i pointer_to_an_integer 1000 22 1000

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Pointers - Variations on a Theme

Consider the following code snippet: int x, y, *p1, *p2; x = 22; y = 44; p1 = &x; /* p1 points to x */ p2 = &y /* p2 points to y */ *p1 = *p2 /* make whatever p1 was pointing to (variable x and hence the value 22) equivalent to whatever p2 is pointing to. */

Hence, both x and y will now have the value 44.

Pointers - Variations on a Theme

Before *p1 = *p2
p1 1000 p2 2000 x 22 y 44

After p1 = p2

pointer1 1000 pointer2 1000
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Printing Using Pointers

Consider the following code snippet: #include <stdio.h> main( ) { int x, *p; x = 26; p = &x; printf("The value of x is %d\n", x); printf("The value of x is %d\n", *p); }

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One-dimensional Character Arrays Using Pointers

In the declaration: char string[11]; the name of the array refers to the starting address of the area that gets allocated for storing the elements of the array. Thus, string contains the address of string[0]. Since a pointer is a variable that contains the address of another variable, it is evident that string is a pointer.
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However, p is a pointer variable that can point to one string at one point of time during the running of the program, and can also point to another string at another point of time during the running of the same program. p is a variable, and a variable by its very definition can hold different values at different points of time during program execution. Therefore, we can conclude that a string is a pointer constant, whereas an explicit character pointer declaration is a character pointer variable.
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Pointer Arithmetic
p 100

100

101

102

103

104

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S
0

h
1

e
2

r
3

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o
5

c
6

k
7 8

H
9

\0
10

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Pointer Arithmetic
Now, let us increment the pointer p by 1, as in: p++; p initially pointed to the base address of the string Sherlock H, i.e., 100. After incrementing the pointer p by 1, it points to the next element in the string or the character array, i.e., character h after S. p now contains the address of the element h, i.e., 101
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Pointer Arithmetic
p 101

100

101

102

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0

h
1

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Pointer Arithmetic
But will the statement p++; always make p point to the next memory location. The answer is an emphatic No. This depends upon the data type that p is pointing to.
Consider the following piece of code: #include <stdio.h> main( ) {
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Pointer Arithmetic
int int_array[3] = {4, 8, 22}; /* int_array is a constant pointer */ int * p; p = int_array; printf (%d, p); p++; printf(%d, p); } The value of p afer being initialized

p 100
100 4
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with the address of int_array

104 8

108 12

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Pointer Arithmetic

The value of p after pointer arithmetic performed on p, i.e., p++

Page 177

Chapter 5 The Function Call Mechanism

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Objectives
In this session, you will learn to: Write programs that invoke functions through a:
Call by value Call by reference

Define function prototypes Describe the function call mechanism Pass arguments to main( ) in the form of command-line arguments Use the Auto, Static, and Extern storage qualifiers Use string handling functions, conversion functions, and functions for formatting strings in memory
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Advantages of Function
Functions facilitate the factoring of code. Every C program consists of one main( ) function typically invoking other functions, each having a well-defined functionality. Functions therefore facilitate:
Reusability Procedural abstraction

By procedural abstraction, we mean that once a function is written, it serves as a black box. All that a programmer would have to know to invoke a function would be to know its name, and the parameters that it expects.
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Function Parameters
Function parameters are defined as part of a function header, and are specified inside the parentheses of the function. The reason that functions are designed to accept parameters is that you can embody generic code inside the function. All that would be required by the function would be the values that it would need to apply the generic code on the values received by it through its parameters.
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Function Parameters
Consider the following printf( ) statement: printf(%d, i); This is actually a call to the printf( ) function with two pieces of information passed to it, namely, the format string that controls the output of the data, and the variable that is to be output. The format string, and the variable name can be called the parameters to the function printf( ) in our example.

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Function Parameters
Function parameters are therefore a mechanism wherein values can be passed down to a function for necessary processing, and the processed value returned back from the function, as the case may be. It is important to remember that not all function need be defined to accept parameters, though most functions do. This brings us now to the important concept of a function returning a value, and also the return type of a function.
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Invoking Functions
In C, functions that have parameters are invoked in one of two ways: Call by value Call by reference

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Call by Value
void swap(int,int ); main() { int a=10, b=20; swap(a, b); printf( %d %d \n,a,b); } void swap (int x, int y) { int temp = x; x= y; y=temp; }

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Call by Value
In the preceding example, the function main( ) declared and initialized two integers a and b, and then invoked the function swap( ) by passing a and b as arguments to the function swap( ). The function swap( ) receives the arguments a and b into its parameters x and y. In fact, the function swap( ) receives a copy of the values of a and b into its parameters. The parameters of a function are local to that function, and hence, any changes made by the called function to its parameters affect only the copy received by the called function, and do not affect the value of the variables in the called function. This is the call by value mechanism.
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Call by Reference
Call by reference means that the called function should be able to refer to the variables of the calling function directly, and not create its own copy of the values in different variables. This would be possible only if the addresses of the variables of the calling function are passed down as parameters to the called function. In a call by reference, therefore, the called function directly makes changes to the variables of the calling function.
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Call by Reference
Consider the same swap( ) that we discussed earlier now rewritten using a call by reference. void swap( int *, int *); main() { int a=10, b=20; swap(&a, &b); printf( %d %d \n,a,b); } void swap (int *x, int *y) { int temp=*x; *x=*y; *y=temp; }
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Passing Arrays to Functions

Arrays are inherently passed to functions through a call by reference. For example, if an integer array named int_array of 10 elements is to be passed to a function called fn( ), then it would be passed as: fn( int_array); Recall that int_array is actually the address of the first element of the array, i.e., &int_array[0]. Therefore, this would be a call by reference.
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Passing Arrays to Functions

The parameter of the called function fn( ) would can be defined in one of three ways: fn( int num_list[ ]); or fn(int num_list[10]); or fn(int *num_list)

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Returning a Value From a Function

Just as data can be passed to a function through the functions parameters at the time of call, the function can return a value back to the caller of the function. In C, functions can return a value through the return statement. Consider the following example:
#include<stdio.h> main( ) { int i,j, value; scanf(%d %d, &i, &j); fflush(stdin);
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Returning Value From a Function

value = add(i, j); printf( the total is %d\n, value); } add( int a, int b) { return (a + b); } In the aforesaid example, the function add( ) sends back the value of the expression (a + b) to the function main( ). The value returned to main( ) from add( ) is stored in the variable value which appears on the left hand side of the statement in which the function add( ) is called.
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Returning a Value From a Function

The return statement not only returns a value back to the calling function, it also returns control back to the calling function. A function can return only one value, though it can return one of several values based on the evaluation of certain conditions.

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Function Prototype
C assumes that a function returns a default value of int if the function does not specify a return type. In case a function has to return a value that is not an integer, then the function itself has to be defined of the specific data type it returns. Consider the following code:
#include <stdio.h> main( ) {
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Function Prototype
Functions should be declared before they are used. Consider the situation where you want to use the pow( ) function, called the power function, one of many functions in the mathematics library available for use by the programmer. A function call such as pow(x, y) returns the value of x raised to the power y. To elucidate further, pow(2.0, 3.0) yields the value 8.0
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Function Prototype
The declaration of the function is given by: double pow( double x, double y); Function declarations of this type are called function prototypes. An equal function prototype is given by: double pow( double, double);

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Function Prototype
A function prototype tells the compiler the number and data types of arguments to be passed to the function and the data type of the value that is to be returned by the function. ANSI C has added the concept of function prototypes to the C language.

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Function Prototype
float add(float a, float b); float i, j, value; scanf(%f %f, &i, &j); fflush(stdin); value = add(i, j); printf( the total is %d\n, value); }

float add(float a, float b) { return (a + b); }

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Function Prototype
#include <stdio.h> main( ) { void add( float, float); float i, j, value; scanf(%f %f, &i, &j); fflush(stdin); add(i, j); printf( the total is %d\n, value); } void add(float a, float b) { printf(%f, a + b); return; }

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C Programming

Memory Register Area Code Area RAM Data Area

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Code Area
Entry point for procedure 1 Code for Procedure 1 Entry point for procedure 2 Code for Procedure 2 . . Entry point for procedure n Code for Procedure n
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Data Area
Only a small part of data can be assigned fixed locations before execution begins Global and/or static data Compile-time constants Large integer values Floating-point values Literal strings

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Dynamic Memory
The memory area for the allocation of dynamic data can be organized in many different ways. A typical organization divides the dynamic memory into stack area (LIFO protocol) heap area

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Memory Organization
code area global/static area stack free space

heap

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Procedure Activation Record

Procedure activation record contains memory allocated for the local data of a procedure or function when it is called, or activated. When activation records are kept on stack, they are called stack frames. Details depend on the architecture of target machine and properties of the language.
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A Procedure Activation Record or a Stack Frame arguments bookkeeping information (return address) local data local temporaries
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Registers
Registers may be used to store temporaries, local variables, or even global variables. When a processor has many registers, the entire static area and whole activation records may be kept in the registers. Special purpose registers: Program counter (PC) Stack pointer (SP)

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Calling Sequence
The calling sequence is the sequence of operations that must occur when a procedure or function is called. Allocation of memory for the activation record The computation and storing the arguments Storing and setting registers

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Return Sequence
The return sequence is the sequence of operations needed when a procedure or function returns. The placing of the return value where it can be accessed by the caller Readjustment of registers Releasing of activation record memory

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Fully Static Runtime Environment

The simplest kind of a runtime environment. All data are static, remaining in memory for the duration of the program.
All variables can be accessed directly via fixed addresses

Each procedure has only a single activation record, which is allocated statically prior to execution. Such environment can be used to implement a language in which: There are no pointers or dynamic allocation, Procedures cannot be called recursively. Example: COBOL & FORTRAN
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Stack-based Runtime Environment

In a language in which recursive calls are allowed, activation records cannot be allocated statically. Activation records are allocated in a stack-based fashion. This stack is called the stack of activation records (runtime stack, call stack). Each procedure may have several different activation records at one time.
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Global Procedures
In a language where all procedures are global (the C language), a stack-based environment requires two things:
1. A pointer to the current activation record to allow access to local variables.
This pointer is called the frame pointer (fp) and is usually kept in a register.

2. The position or size of the callers activation record

This information is commonly kept in the current activation record as a pointer to the previous activation record and referred as the control link or dynamic link. Sometimes, the pointer is called the old fp

3. Additionally, there may be a stack pointer (sp)

It always points to the top of the stack

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Tracing Function Calls

int z; main( ) { int x; fn_a( ); .. . . . . } fn_a( int m ) { int y; fn_b( );
return instruction

fn_b( int n ) { int b; ..

.. . . . }

return instruction

. . . }

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A View of the Runtime Stack

S t a c k G r o w t fp sp h
z x m y control link return address n control link return address b Free Store (Heap) Global static area Activation record of main

Activation record of call to fn_a( )

Variable Length Data

The printf( ) function in C, where the number of arguments is determined from the format string that is passed as the first argument. printf(%d%s%c, n, prompt, ch); printf(Hello, world!); C compilers push arguments onto the stack in reverse order. The first parameter (which tells how many more parameters are) is always located at the fixed offset from fp.
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Local Temporaries
Local temporaries are partial results of computations that must be saved across procedure calls. Example: x[i]=(i+j)*(i/k+f(i));
Three partial results need to be saved: the address of x[i], the sum i+j, and the quotient i/k.

They can be stored

1. In the registers 2. As temporaries on the runtime stack prior the call to f.

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Nested Declarations
Nested declarations can be treated in a similar way to temporary expressions, allocating them on the stack as the block is entered and deleting them on exit. void p (int x, double y) { char a; int i; { double x; // block A int y; } { double x; // block B int j; } { char *a; // block C int k; } }
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Passing Arguments to main( )

Arguments are generally passed to a function at the time of call. And function calls are initiated by main( ). Since main( ) is the first function to be executed, there is no question of main( ) being called from any other function. So, if main( ) is not going to be invoked by any other function, is it possible to pass arguments to main( ) given the fact that arguments are generally passed to a function at the time of invocation. The answer lies in understanding command-line arguments.
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Command-Line Arguments
The function main( ) can receive arguments from the command line. Information can be passed to the function main( ) from the operating system prompt as command line arguments. The command line arguments are accepted into special parameters to main( ), namely, argc and argv. Their declarations are as follows: main(int argc, char * argv[ ])

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Command Line Arguments

argc provides a count of the number of command line arguments. argv is an array of character pointers of undefined size that can be thought of as an array of pointers to strings. The strings are the words that make up the command line arguments. Since the element argv[0] contains the command itself, the value of argc is at least 1.
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Command Line Arguments

Consider a program called uppercase which converts a string to uppercase. The program expects the string to be entered at the command prompt. It should be noted that if the string accepted as a command line argument has embedded spaces, it should be enclosed in quotation marks. Assume the program is run by entering the following command at the operating system prompt: Uppercase Sherlock Holmes
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Command-Line Arguments
argv 100
argv[0]

argc = 3

200

argv[1]

300 S h e r l o c k H o l m e s \0 s

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Command Line Arguments

The program uppercase.c can be coded as follows: #include <stdio.h> main(int argc, char * argv[ ]) { int i; for (i = 0; argv[1][i] != \0, i++) { if ((argv[1][i] >= a) && (argv[1][i] <= z)) argv[1][i] = argv[1][i] 32; } printf( %s, argv[1]); }

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Storage Qualifiers
The storage qualifier determines the lifetime of the storage associated with the identified variable. A variable also has a scope, which is the region of the program in which it is known. The storage qualifiers in C are: auto static extern register
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automatic Variables
automatic variables are local to a block, and are discarded on exit from the block. Block implies a function block, a conditional block, or an iterative block. Declarations within a block create automatic variables if no storage class specification is mentioned, or if the auto specifier is used. Variable declarations, therefore, are by default, auto.
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automatic Variables
#include<stdio.h> main( ) { char var; while ((var = getchar( )) != *) { if ((var >= A) && (var <= Z)) { uppercase_count( ); } } } uppercase_count( ) { auto int counter = 0; counter ++; }
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Global Variables
Global variable is defined outside all functions. A typical convention of defining global variables is before the main( ) function. A variable declared as global is visible to the function main( ) as well as to any other functions called from main( ). A variable defined as global has file scope, that is, it is visible to all the functions written within the scope of a program file.
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Global Variables
/* A sample C program */ # include <stdio.h> int sum( ); /* function prototype */ int a=10, b=20; /* a and b are global variables, visible to main( ) as well as to sum( ) */ main() { int c; c = sum(); printf(%d+%d = %d \n,a,b,c); } int sum() { return(a+b); }
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Static Variables
Static variables may be local to a block or external to all blocks, but in either case retain their values across exit from, and reentry to functions and blocks. Within a block, including a block that provides the code for a function, static variables are declared with the keyword static. Let us rewrite the code for the example involving auto variables to incorporate the declaration of static variables.

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Standard String Handling Functions

strcmp( ) compares two strings (that are passed to it as parameters) character by character using their ASCII values, and returns any of the following integer values. Return Value
Less than 0

Implication
ASCII value of the character of the first string is less than the ASCII value of the corresponding character of the second string ASCII value of the character of the first string is less than the ASCII value of the corresponding character of the second string If the strings are identical

Example
i = strcmp(XYZ, xyz)

Greater than 0

i = strcmp(xyz, XYZ)

Equal to 0

atoi( ) This function accepts a string representation of an integer, and returns its integer equivalent. Example: i = atoi(22) will return the integer value 22 into the integer i. This function is especially useful in cases where main is designed to accept numeric values as command line arguments. It may be recalled that an integer passed as a command line argument to main( ) is treated as a string, and therefore needs to be converted to its numeric equivalent.
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String to Numeric Conversion Functions

File Access
The function fopen( ) takes a file name as an argument, and interacts with the operating system for accessing the necessary file, and returns a pointer of type FILE to be used in subsequent input/output operations on that file. This pointer, called the file pointer, points to a structure that contains information about the file, such as the location of a buffer, the current character position in the buffer, whether the file is being read or written, and whether errors, or end of file have occurred.

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File Access
This structure to which the file pointer point to, is of type FILE, defined in the header file <stdio.h>. The only declaration needed for a file pointer is exemplified by:
FILE *fp; FILE *fopen(char *name, char *mode); fp = fopen( file name, mode);

Once the function fopen( ) returns a FILE type pointer stored in a pointer of type FILE, this pointer becomes the medium through which all subsequent I/O can be performed.
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File Access Modes

When opening a file using fopen( ), one also needs to mention the mode in which the file is to be operated on. C allows a number of modes in which a file can be opened. Mode r Access Read only mode Explanation Opening a file in r mode only allows data to be read from the file The w mode creates an empty file for output. If a file by the name already exists, it is deleted. Data can only be written to the file, and not read from it

Write only mode

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File Access Modes

Mode a Access Append mode Explanation Allows data to be appended to the end of the file, without erasing the existing contents. It is therefore useful for adding data to existing data files. This mode allows data to be updated in a file This mode works similarly to the w mode, except that it allows data to be read back after it is written. This mode allows existing data to be read, and new data to be added to the end of the file.

r+ w+ a+

Read + Write mode Write + Read mode Read + Append mode

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Character-based File I/O

In C, character-based input/output from and to files is facilitated through the functions fgetc( ) and fputc( ). These functions are simple extensions of the corresponding functions for input/output from/to the terminal. The only additional argument for both functions is the appropriate file pointer, through which these functions perform input/output from/to these files.

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A File Copy Program

#include<stdio.h> main( ) { FILE *fp1, *fp2; fp1 = fopen( source.dat, r); fp2 = fopen( target.dat, w); char ch; while ( (ch = fgetc( fp1)) != EOF) { fputc (ch, fp2); } fclose(fp1); fclose(fp2); }
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Variation to Console-Based I/O

#include<stdio.h> main( ) { char ch; while ( (ch = fgetc( stdin)) != EOF) { fputc (ch, stdout); } }

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Nuggets on FILE Type Pointers

The important point to note is that in C, devices are also treated as files. So, the keyboard and the VDU are also treated as files. It would be interesting here to know what stdin, stdout, and stderr actually are. stdin, stdout, and stderr are pointers of type FILE defined in stdio.h. stdin is a FILE type pointer to standard input, stdout is a FILE type pointer to standard output, and stderr is a FILE type pointer to the standard error device.
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Nuggets on FILE Type Pointers

In case fopen( ) is unsuccessful in opening a file (file may not exist, or has become corrupt), it returns a null (zero) value called NULL. NULL is defined in the header file stdio.h The NULL return value of fopen( ) can be used for error checking as in the following line of code:
if ((fp = fopen(a.dat, r)) = = NULL) printf(Error Message);

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The exit( ) function

The exit( ) function is generally used in conjunction with checking the return value of the fopen( ) statement. If fopen( ) returns a NULL, a corresponding error message can be printed, and program execution can be terminated gracefully using the exit( ) function.
if ((fp = fopen(a.dat, r)) = = NULL) { printf(Error Message); exit( ); }
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Line Input/Output With Files

C provides the functions fgets( ) and fputs( ) for performing line input/output from/to files. The prototype declaration for fgets( ) is given below: char* fgets(char *line, int maxline, FILE *fp); The explanations to the parameters of fgets( ) is:
char* line the string into which data from the file is to be read int maxline the maximum length of the line in the file from which data is being read FILE *fp is the file pointer to the file from which data is being read
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Line Input/Output With Files

fgets( ) reads the next input line (including the newline) from file fp into the character array line; At most maxline-1 characters will be read. The resulting line is terminated with '\0'. Normally fgets( ) returns line; on end of file, or error it returns NULL.

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Line Input/Output With Files

For output, the function fputs( ) writes a string (which need not contain a newline) to a file:
int fputs(char *line, FILE *fp)

It returns EOF if an error occurs, and non-negative otherwise.

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File Copy Program Using Line I/O

#define MAX 81; #include<stdio.h> main( ) { FILE *fp1, *fp2; fp1 = fopen( source.dat, r); fp2 = fopen( target.dat, w); char string[MAX]; while ( (fgets(string, MAX, fp1)) != NULL) { fputs (string, fp2); } fclose(fp1); fclose(fp2); }
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Formatted File Input/Output

C facilitates data to be stored in a file in a format of your choice. You can read and write data from/to a file in a formatted manner using fscanf( ) and fprintf( ). Apart from receiving as the first argument the format specification (which governs the way data is read/written to/from a file), these functions also need the file pointer as a second argument. fscanf( ) returns the value EOF upon encountering end-offile.
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Formatted File Input/Output

fscanf( ) assumes the field separator to be any white space character, i.e., a space, a tab, or a newline character. The statement printf(The test value is %d, i); can be rewritten using the function fprintf( ) as:
fprintf( stdout, The test value is %d, x);

The statement scanf( %6s%d, string, &i) can be rewritten using the function fscanf( ) as:
fscanf(stdin, %6s%d, string, &i);

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Random Access
Input from, or output to a file is effective relative to a position in the file known as the current position in the file. For example, when a file is opened for input, the current position in the file from which input takes place is the beginning of the file. If, after opening the file, the first input operation results in ten bytes being read from the file, the current position in the file from which the next input operation will take place is from the eleventh byte position.
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Random Access
It is therefore clear that input or output from a file results in a shift in the current position in the file. The current position in a file is the next byte position from where data will be read from in an input operation, or written to in an output operation. The current position advances by the number of bytes read or written. A current position beyond the last byte in the file indicates end of file.
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Random Access
For example, when a file is opened for input, the current position in the file from which input takes place is the beginning of the file. If, after opening the file, the first input operation results in ten bytes being read from the file, the current position in the file from which the next input operation will take place is from the eleventh byte position. This is sequential access, in which a file is opened, and you start reading bytes from the file sequentially till end of file. The same argument cab be extended to sequential write.
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Random Access
In sharp contrast to sequential access is random access that involves reading from any arbitrary position in the file, or writing to any arbitrary position in the file. Random access therefore mandates that we must have a mechanism for positioning the current position in the file to any arbitrary position in the file for performing input or output. To facilitate this, C provides the fseek( ) function, the prototype of which is as follows:
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The fseek( ) Function

The function fseek( ) is used for repositioning the current position in a file opened by the function fopen( ). int rtn = fseek(file pointer, offset, from where) where, int rtn is the value returned by the function fseek( ). fseek( ) returns the value 0 if successful, and 1 if unsuccessful. FILE file-pointer is the pointer to the file long offset is the number of bytes that the current position will shift on a file int from-where can have one of three values: from beginning of file (represented as 0) from current position (represented as 1) from end of file (represented as 2)
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The fseek( ) function

Consider the following schematic representation of a file in terms of a string of 30 bytes. The file contains records and fields that are not delimited by any special character. fp = fopen(employee.dat, r)
employee.dat
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0

current offset
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while(( fseek( fp, offset, 1)) = = 0) { fgets(salary, 7, fp); f_salary = atof(salary) + 100; sprintf(salary, %6.2f, f_salary); /*convert f_salary to a string */ fseek(fp, pos, 0); /* reposition at start of salary field */ fputs(salary, fp); /* update salary field pos += 10; /* increment pos to starting byte of salary field for the next record */ } printf(The file SALARY.DAT has been updated); fclose(fp); }
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The ftell( ) and feof( ) Function

The prototype declaration for the function ftell( ) is:
long ftell(FILE *fp)

ftell returns the current file position for stream, or -1 on error. The prototype declaration for the function feof( ) is:
int feof(FILE *fp)

feof returns non-zero if the end of file indicator for stream is set.
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Summary
In this session you learnt to: Use pointers of type FILE when performing file I/O Perform Input/Output with files Use character-based file input/output functions Use string-based file input/output functions Perform random access on files using the functions
fseek( ) ftell( ) rewind( ) feof( )

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Chapter 7 User-Defined Data Types

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Objectives
In this session, you will learn to: Trace down the genesis of user-defined data types Declare user-defined data types, namely
Structures Unions Enumerations

Use pointers to structures and unions Declare arrays of structures Pass structures to functions Use the typedef declaration for easier and compact coding Use the functions fread( ) and fwrite( ) to read and write structures to and from files
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User-Defined Data Types The Genesis

Consider a situation where your application needs to read records from a file for processing. The general approach would be to read the various fields of a record into corresponding memory variables. Computations can then be performed on these memory variables, the contents of which can then be updated to the file. But, this approach would involve manipulating the current file offset for the relevant fields that need to be updated.
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User-Defined Data Types The Genesis

Processing would become a lot more simpler if it were possible to read an entire record into an extended variable declaration, the structure of which would be the same as the record in the file. This extended variable declaration in turn would be a collection of variables of different data types, each variable matching the data type of the fields in the record. The flexibility with such an arrangement is that the collection of variables making up the extended variable declaration can be referred to in the program using a single name.
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Structures The Definition

A structure is a collection of one or more variables, possibly of different types, grouped together under a single name for convenient handling. Structures help to organize complicated data, particularly in large programs, because they permit a group of related variables to be treated as a unit instead of as separate entities. An example of a structure is the payroll record: an employee is described by a set of attributes such as name, address, social security number, salary, etc.
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Structures The Definition

Some of these in turn could be structures: a name has several components, as does an address. Other examples of structures are: a point is a pair of coordinates, a rectangle is a pair of points, and so on. The main change made by the ANSI standard is to define structure assignment - structures may be copied and assigned to, passed to functions, and returned by functions. Automatic structures and arrays may now also be initialized.
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Structures Defining a Type

When we declare a structure, we are defining a type. A structure declaration results in the definition of a template or a blueprint for a user-defined data type. Upon declaring a structure, the compiler identifies the structure declaration as a user-defined data type over and above the fundamental data types, or primitive data types built into the compiler. A structure therefore is a mechanism for the extension of the type mechanism in the C language.
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Declaring a Structure
The C language provides the struct keyword for declaring a structure. The following is a structure declaration for employee attributes.
struct empdata { int empno; char name[10]; char job[10]; float salary; };

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Declaring a Structure
The keyword struct introduces a structure declaration, which is a list of declarations enclosed in braces. An optional name called a structure tag may follow the word struct, as with employee in the previous example. The tag names this kind of structure, and can be used subsequently as a shorthand for the part of the declaration in braces. A struct declaration defines a type.
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Declaring a Structure - Conventions

The variables named in a structure are called members. A structure member or tag, and an ordinary (i.e., non-member) variable can have the same name without conflict, since they can always be distinguished by context. Furthermore, the same member names may occur in different structures, although as a matter of style one would normally use the same names only for closely related structure variables. Variables of a structure type may immediately follow the structure declaration, or may be defined separately as follows:
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Declaring a Structure Variable

struct empdata { int empno; char name[10]; char job[10]; float salary; } emprec; /* emprec is a variable of structure type empdata */ Or a structure can be declared separately as: struct empdata emprec;/* emprec is a variable of structure type empdata */

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Array of Structures
Just as it is possible to declare arrays of primitive data types, it should also be possible to declare arrays of structures as well. Consider the structure declaration for the employee details used earlier.
struct empdata { int empno; char name[10]; char job[10]; float salary; };
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Array of Structures
If one were to define an array of structure variables, one would do so as follows:
struct empdata employee_array[4];

The rationale for declaring an array of structures becomes clear when one wants to improve I/O efficiency in a program. Once an array of structures is defined, it is possible to read in a block of records from a file using an appropriate function (fread( )), the details of which you will see shortly.
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Writing Records On To a File

The fwrite( ) function allows a structure variable to be written on to a file. The following statement writes the structure variable salesvar on to a file SALES.DAT, which is pointed to by the FILE type pointer fp:
fwrite( &salesvar, sizeof(struct salesdata), 1, fp);

The arguments to the function fwrite( ) are explained as follows:

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Writing Structures To a File

Here &salesrec is the address of the structure variable to be written to the file. The second parameter is the size of the data to be written, i.e., size of the structure salesdata. The parameter to the sizeof( ) operator is the structure label, or the structure type itself, and not a variable of the structure type. The sizeof( ) operator can be used to determine the size of any data type in C (fundamental as well as user-defined data types. The third parameter of fwrite( ) is the number of structure variables to be written to the file. In our statement, it is 1, since only one structure variable is written to the file. In case, an array of 4 structure variables is to be written to a file using fwrite( ), the third parameter to fwrite( ) should be 4. The last parameter is the pointer to the file.
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Reading Records from a File

Records can be read from a file using fread( ). The corresponding read statement using fread( ) for the earlier fwrite( ) statement would be:
fread(&salesvar, sizeof(struct salesdata), 1, fp);

Here, the first parameter &salesvar is the address of the structure variable salesvar into which 1 record is to be read from the file pointed to by the FILE type pointer fp. The second parameter specifies the size of the data to be read into the structure variable.
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Reading Records from a File

fread( ) will return the actual number of records read from the file. This feature can be checked for a successful read. if ((fread( &salesvar, sizeof(struct salesdata), 1, fp)) != 1) error code; An odd feature of the fread( ) function is that it does not return any special character on encountering end of file. Therefore, after every read using fread( ), care must be taken to check for end of file, for which the standard C library provides the feof( ) function. It can be used thus: if(feof(fp))
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Union
Can hold objects of different types and sizes at different times Syntax similar to structure but meaning is different All members of union share same storage space Only the last data member defined can be accessed Means of conserving memory union declaration similar to struct declaration eg. union u_type { int i; char ch; }; union u_type cnvt;
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Unions
In cnvt, both integer i and character ch share the same memory location. Of course, i occupies 2 bytes (assuming 2-byte integers, and ch uses only one byte. i

Byte 0

Byte 1

ch
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Unions
To access a member of a union, use the same syntax that you would use for structures: the dot and arrow operators. If you are operating on the union directly, use the dot operator. If the union is accessed through a pointer, use the arrow operator. For example, to assign the integer 10 to element i of cnvt, write cnvt.i = 10;

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Unions
In the following code snippet, a pointer to cnvt is passed to a function: void func1( union u_type *un) { un->i = 10; /* assign 10 to cnvt using function */ } Using a union can aid in the production of machineindependent (portable) code. Because the compiler keeps track of the actual size of the union members, no unnecessary machine dependencies are produced.
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Unions
Unions are used frequently when specialized type conversions are needed because you can refer to the data held in the union in fundamentally different ways. Consider the problem of writing a short integer to a disk file. The C standard library defines no function specifically designed to write a short integer to a file. While you can write any type of data to a file using fwrite( ), using fwrite( ) incurs excessive overhead for such a simple operation.
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Unions
However, using a union, you can easily create a function called putw( ), which represents the binary representation of a short integer to a file one byte at a time. The following example assumes that short integers are 2 bytes long. First, create a union consisting of one short integer and a 2-byte character array: union pw { short int i; char ch[2]; };

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Unions
Now, you can use pw to create the version of putw( ) shown in the following program: #include <stdio.h> union pw { short int i; char ch[2]; }; int putw( short int num, FILE *fp);
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Unions
int main (void) { FILE *fp; fp = fopen( test.tmp, wb+); putw(1000, fp); /* write the value 1000 as an integer */ fclose( fp ); return 0; }

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Unions
int putw( short int num, FILE *fp) { union pw word; word.i = num; fputc( word.ch[0], fp); /* write first half */ fputc( word.ch[1], fp); /* write second half */ } Although putw( ) is called with a short integer, it can still use the standard function fputc( ) to write each byte in the integer to a disk file one byte at a time.
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Enumeration
Is a set of named integer constants that specify all the legal values a variable of that type can have. The keyword enum signals the start of an enumeration type. The general form for enumeration is enum enum-type-name { enumeration list } variable_list; enum coin { penny, nickel, dime, quarter, half_dollar, dollar}; enum coin money;
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Enumeration
Given these declarations, the following types of statements are perfectly valid: money = dime; if (money = = quarter) printf( Money is a quarter. \n); The key point to understand about an enumeration is that each of the symbols stands for an integer value. As such, they may be used anywhere that an integer may be used.
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Enumeration
Each symbol is given a value one greater than the symbol that precedes it. The value of the first enumeration symbol is 0. Therefore, printf( %d %d, penny, dime); displays 0 2 on the screen. You can specify the value of one or more of the symbols by using an initializer. Do this by following the symbol with an equal sign and an integer value.

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Enumeration
For example, the following code assigns the value of 100 to quarter: enum coin { penny, nickel, dime, quarter=100, half_dollar, dollar}; Now, the values of these symbols are: penny 0 nickel 1 dime 2 quarter 100 half_dollar 101 dollar 102
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Enumeration
One common but erroneous assumption about enumerations is that the symbols can be input and output directly. This is not the case. For example, the following code fragment will not perform as desired: money = dollar; printf( %s, money); Dollar is simply a name for an integer; it is not a string.
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Enumeration
For the same reason, you cannot use this code to achieve the desired results: /* this code is wrong */ strcpy (money, dime); That is, a string that contains the name of a symbol is not automatically converted to that symbol. Actually creating code to input and output enumeration symbols is quite tedious (unless you are willing to settle for their integer values).

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Enumeration
For example, you need the following code to display, in words, the kind of coins that money contains:
switch (money) { case penny : printf( penny); break; case nickel : printf( nickel); break; case dime : printf( dime); break; case quarter : printf( quarter); break; case half_dollar : printf( half_dollar); break; case dollar : printf( dollar); break; }
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Typedef Statements
Creates synonyms (aliases) for previously defined datatypes Used to create shorter type names Format: typedef type new-type; Example: typedef struct Card * CardPtr; defines a new type name CardPtr as a synonym for type struct Card * typedef does not create a new datatype Only creates an alias
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Summary
In this session, you learnt to: Trace down the genesis of user-defined data types Declare user-defined data types, namely
Structures Unions Enumerations

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Chapter 8 Recursion

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Objectives
In this session, you will learn to: Define a recursive function Describe how to write a recursive function Describe recursive calls to a function using the runtime stack Define, Declare, and Use Function Pointers

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Introduction
Many concepts typically in mathematics are defined by presenting a process leading up to that concept. For example, T is defined as ratio of the circumference of a circle to its diameter. This is equivalent to the following set of instructions:
Obtain the circumference of a circle Obtain its diameter Divide circumference by the diameter and call the result T Clearly, the process specified must terminate with a definite result.

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The Factorial Function

Another example of a definition specified by a process is that of the factorial function. Given a positive integer n, n factorial is defined as the product of all integers between n and 1. For example, 4 factorial equals 4 * 3 * 2 * 1 = 24. 0 factorial is defined as 1. In mathematics, the exclamation mark (!) is used to denote the factorial function.
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The Factorial Function

You may therefore write the definition of this function as follows: n! = 1 if n = = 0 n! = n * (n-1) * (n-2) * .. * 1 if n > 0. The dots are really a shorthand notation for all the numbers between (n 3) and (n 2) multiplied together. To avoid the shorthand in the definition of n!, we would have to list a formula for n! for each value of n separately, as follows:
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The Factorial Function

0! = 1 1! = 1 2! = 2 * 1 3! = 3 * 2 * 1 4! = 4 * 3 * 2 * 1

It is cumbersome for you to list the formula for the factorial of each integer. To avoid any shorthand, and to avoid an infinite set of definitions, but yet to define the function precisely, you may present an algorithm that accepts an integer n and returns the value of n!.
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The Factorial Function

prod = 1 for (x = n; x > 0; x--) { prod *= x; return (prod) }

This algorithm exhibits the process used to compute n! by the recursive definition. The key to the algorithm is of course line 5 , where you are told to find the value of x!. This requires re-executing the algorithm with input x, since the method for computing the factorial is the algorithm itself. To see that the algorithm eventually halts, note that at the start of line 5, x equals n 1.
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Evolving a Recursive Definition for the Factorial

Mechanics of Recursion
In the statement y = fact(x), the function fact( ) makes a recursive call to itself. This is the essential ingredient of a recursive routine. The programmer assumes that the function being computed has already been written, and uses it in its own definition. However, the programmer must ensure that this does not lead to an endless series of calls.
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Mechanics of Recursion
It is important to examine the execution of this function when it is called by another program. For example, the calling program (main( )) contains the statement: printf(%d, fact(4)); When the calling function calls fact( ), the parameter n is set equal to 4. Since n is not 0, x is set equal to 3. At that point, fact( ) is called a second time with an argument of 3.
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Mechanics of Recursion
Therefore, the function fact( ) is reentered and the local variables (x and y) and parameter (n) of the block are reallocated. Since execution has not yet left the first call of fact( ), the first allocation of these variables remains. Thus, there are two generations of each of these variables in existence simultaneously in the stack for the first call, and the second recursive call to the function fact( ) respectively.
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Mechanics of Recursion
From any point within the second execution of fact( ), only the most recent copy of these variables can be referenced. In general, each time the function fact( ) is entered recursively, a new set of local variables and parameters is allocated on the stack, and only this new set may be referenced within that call of fact( ). When a return from fact( ) to a point in a previous call takes place, the most recent allocation of these variables is freed from the stack when the function returns, and the previous copy is reactivated (belonging to the previous recursive call to the function fact( )).
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Mechanics of Recursion
This previous copy is the one that was allocated upon the original entry to the previous call and is local to that call. This description suggests the use of a stack to keep the successive generations of local variables and parameters. This stack is maintained by the C system and is invisible to the programmer. Each time that a recursive function is entered, a new allocation of its variables is pushed on top of the stack.

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Mechanics of Recursion
Any reference to a local variable or parameter is through the current top of the stack. When the function returns, the stack is popped, the top allocation is freed, and the previous allocation becomes the current top of the stack to be used for referencing local variables and parameters. You will now see how this mechanism is applied in computing the factorial function.

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Mechanics of Recursion
The following figure contains a series of snapshots of the stack for the variables n, x, and y as execution of the fact( ) function proceeds. Initially, the stacks are empty, as illustrated in (a). After the first call on fact( ) by the calling procedure, the situation is as shown in (b) with n equal to 4. The variables x and y are allocated but not initialized.

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Mechanics of Recursion
Since n does not equal 0, x is set to 3 and fact(3) is called as shown in (c). The new value of n does not equal 0; therefore, x is set to 2 and fact(2) is called as shown in (d). This continues until n equals 0 as shown in(f). At that point, the value 1 is returned from the call to fact(0).
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Mechanics of Recursion
Execution resumes from the point at which fact(0) was called, which is the assignment of the returned value to the copy of y declared in fact(1). This is shown by the status of the stack shown in figure (g), where the variables allocated for fact(0) have been freed and y is set to 1. The statement return (n * y) is then executed, multiplying the top values of n and y to obtain 1, and returning the value to fact(2) as shown in (h).
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Mechanics of Recursion
This process is repeated twice more, until finally the value of y in fact(4) equals 6. The statement return (n * y) is executed one more time. The product 24 is returned to the calling function where it is printed by the statement printf(%d, fact(4)); Note that each time that a recursive routine returns, it returns to the point immediately following the point from which it was called.
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Mechanics of Recursion
Thus, the recursive call to fact(3) returns to the assignment of the result to y within fact(4), but the call to fact(4) returns to the printf( ) statement in the calling function.
(a) initially (b) fact(4) (c) fact(3) (c) fact(2)

2 3 4
n x y n

* 2 3
n x

* * *
y

* 3
n x

* *
y

3 4

*
x

*
y

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Mechanics of Recursion

(e) fact(1)

(f) fact(0)

(g) y = fact(0)

(h) y = fact(1)

0 1 2 3 4 n x * 1 2 3 * * * * 1 2 3 4 n x

* 0 1 2 3

* * * *

1 2 3 4

0 1 2 3 x y

1 * * * 2 3 4 n 1 2 3 x y 1 * *

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Mechanics of Recursion

(i) y = fact(2)

(j) y = fact(3)

Pritnf(%d, fact(4))

3 4 n x

2 3 y

2 * n 4 x 3 y 6 n x y

The stack at various times during execution. An asterisk indicates an uninitialized value.

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Function Pointers
Function Pointers are pointers, i.e. variables, which point to the address of a function. You must keep in mind, that a running program gets a certain space in the main-memory. Both, the executable compiled program code and the used variables, are put inside this memory. Thus a function in the program code is, like e.g. a character field, nothing else than an address.
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Function Pointers
It is only important how you, or better, your compiler/processor, interpret the memory a pointer points to. When you want to call a function fn() at a certain point in your program, you just put the call of the function fn() at that point in your source code. Then you compile your code, and every time your program comes to that point, your function is called. But what can you do, if you don't know at build-time which function has got to be called? Or, invoke functions at runtime.
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Function Pointers
You want to select one function out of a pool of possible functions. However you can also solve the latter problem using a switch-statement, where you call the functions just like you want it, in the different branches. But there's still another way: Use a function pointer! Consider the example on the following slide:
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Declaring and Using Function Pointers

How are function pointers used? As stated above they are typically used so one function can take in other functions as a parameter. Consider the following example: #include <stdio.h> int compute( int, int (*comp)(int) ); int doubleIt( int ); int tripleIt( int ); int main() { int x; x = compute( 5, &doubleIt ); printf("The result is: %i\n", x );

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Declaring and Using Function Pointers

x = compute( 5, &tripleIt ); printf("The result is: %i\n", x ); return 0; } int compute( int y, int (*comp)(int) ) { return comp( y ); } int doubleIt( int y ) { return y*2; } int tripleIt( int y ) { return y*3; }
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Declaring and Using Function Pointers

Aside from main( ), this program has 3 functions. The functions doubleIt( ) and tripleIt( ) are just run of mill functions that take in an integer, either double or triple the value of the argument received, and return the value. The function of interest here is compute( ). It starts off normal. It returns an int, and the first parameter is an int. But the second parameter is pretty strange looking. The whole "int (comp*)(int)" is one parameter, which, in fact, is the format of a function pointer.
Copyright Wipro Technologies Talent Transformation C Programming ver 2.0 Page 370

Declaring and Using Function Pointers

Basically it says compute( ) wants a pointer to a function that takes one integer parameter, and returns an integer. And it is going to refer to this function through the parameter name comp. When compute( ) is called, it uses its parameter comp just like a normal function. When a function pointer is passed to a function, it can be used like a normal function. When compute( ) is called in main( ), the second parameter is given the name of another function with an ampersand.
Copyright Wipro Technologies Talent Transformation

C Programming

ver 2.0

Page 371

Declaring and Using Function Pointers

The ampersand is of course, the "address of" operator. So this is passing the address of doubleIt( ) (and pointers are really just addresses). So this is how compute( ) gets the pointer to doubleIt( ) It is important to note however, that if the return type of the function doubleIt( ) and it's parameter list did not match the ones for the function pointer comp, it could not be used. When you pass a function pointer, the functions header must match the header of the function pointer definition exactly, or it cannot be used.
Copyright Wipro Technologies Talent Transformation C Programming ver 2.0 Page 372

Summary
In this session, you learnt to: Define a recursive function Describe how to write a recursive function Describe recursive calls to a function using the runtime stack Define, Declare, and Use Function Pointers

Copyright Wipro Technologies Talent Transformation

C Programming

ver 2.0

Page 373

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