SCS1501 - OPERATING SYSTEM

UNIT – 1
INTRODUCTION TO OS

Department of Computer Science and Engineering

School of Computing
References:
COURSE OUTCOMES
Understand the fundamental components of a computer
SCS1501.1 operating system and how computing resources are managed
by the operating system
Apply the concepts of CPU scheduling, synchronization and
SCS1501.2
deadlocks in real computing problems
Demonstrate the different memory and I/O management
SCS1501.3
techniques used in Operating systems.
Have practical exposure to the concepts of semaphores and
SCS1501.4
monitors for process synchronization
Create design and construct the following OS components:
SCS1501.5 Schedulers, Memory management systems in the modern
operating system.

Understand file system structure and implement a file system

SCS1501.6
such as FAT
 INTRODUCTION TO OS
• A computer system has many resources (hardware and software),
which may be require to complete a task.
• Operating System is a system software that acts as an intermediary
between a user and Computer Hardware to enable convenient usage of
the system and efficient utilization of resources.
• The commonly required resources are input/output devices, memory,
file storage space, CPU etc. 
• The operating system acts as a manager of the above resources and
allocates them to specific programs and users, whenever necessary to
perform a particular task.
• The resources are processor, memory, files, and I/O devices. In simple
terms, an operating system is the interface between the user and the
machine.
•  Therefore operating system is the resource manager i.e. it can manage
the resource of a computer system internally.
INTRODUCTION TO OS
 GOALS OF OPERATING SYSTEM
• Execute user programs
• Make solving user problems easier.
• Make the computer system convenient
to use.
• Use the computer hardware in an
efficient manner.
 FUNCTIONS OF OPERATING SYSTEM / SYSTEM
COMPONENTS
• Main Memory Management
• Processor Management
• Device Management
• File Management
• I/O System Management
• Secondary Management
• Networking
• Protection System
• Command Interpreter System
 MEMORY MANAGEMENT
• Memory management refers to management of Primary Memory or Main
Memory. Main memory is a large array of words or bytes where each word
or byte has its own address.
• Main memory provides a fast storage that can be accessed directly by the
CPU.
• ACTIVITIES
– Keeps tracks of primary memory, i.e., what part of it are in use by whom, what part
is not in use.
– In multiprogramming, the OS decides which process will get memory when and
how much.
– Allocates the memory when a process requests it to do so.
– De-allocates the memory when a process no longer needs it or has been
terminated
 PROCESSOR MANAGEMENT
• In multiprogramming environment, the OS decides
which process gets the processor when and for how
much time. This function is called process scheduling
• ACTIVITIES
– Keeps tracks of processor and status of process. The
program responsible for this task is known as traffic
controller.
– Allocates the processor (CPU) to a process.
– De-allocates processor when a process is no longer required.
 DEVICE MANAGEMENT
• An Operating System manages device
communication via their respective drivers
• ACTIVITIES
– Keeps tracks of all devices. Program responsible for
this task is known as the I/O controller.
– Decides which process gets the device when and for
how much time.
– Allocates the device in the efficient way.
– De-allocates devices.
 FILE MANAGEMENT
• A file system is normally organized into directories
for easy navigation and usage. These directories
may contain files and other directions.
• ACTIVITIES
– Keeps track of information, location, uses, status etc.
The collective facilities are often known as file system.
– Decides who gets the resources.
– Allocates the resources.
– De-allocates the resources
 I/O SYSTEM MANAGEMENT
• OS hides the peculiarities of specific
hardware devices from the user.
• ACTIVITIES
– A general device-driver interface
– Drivers for specific hardware devices.
– Only the device driver knows the peculiarities
of the specific device to which it is assigned.
 SECONDARY STORAGE MANAGEMENT
• The main purpose of a computer system is to execute
programs. These programs, with the data they access,
must be in main memory, or primary storage.
• Systems have several levels of storage, including primary
storage, secondary storage and cache storage.
• ACTIVITIES
– Free-space management (paging/swapping)
– Storage allocation (what data goes where on the disk)
– Disk scheduling (Scheduling the requests for memory access).
 NETWORKING
• A distributed systems are a collection of processors that do not
share memory, peripheral devices, or a clock.
• The processors in the system are connected through a
communication-network. Communication takes place using a
protocol. The network may be fully or partially connected
• The communication-network design must consider routing and
connection strategies.
• ACTIVITIES
– Computation Speed-up
– Increased functionality
– Increased data availability
– Enhanced reliability
 PROTECTION SYSTEM
• If a computer system has multiple users and allows the
concurrent execution of multiple processes, then the various
processes must be protected from one another's activities.
• Protection refers to mechanism for controlling the access of
programs, files, memory segments, processes (CPU) only by
the users who have gained proper authorization from the OS.
• ACTIVITIES
– Distinguish between authorized and unauthorized usage.
– Specify the controls to be imposed.
– Provide a means of enforcement.
 COMMAND INTERPRETER SYSTEM
• A command interpreter is one of the important system programs for an OS.
• It is an interface of the operating system with the user. The user gives
commands, which are executed by Operating system (usually by turning
them into system calls).
• The main function of a command interpreter is to get and execute the next
user specified command.
• ACTIVITIES
– process creation and management
– I/O handling
– secondary-storage management
– main-memory management
– file-system access
– protection
– networking
 CLASSIFICATION OF OPERATING SYSTEM
• Multi-user OS : Allows two or more users to run programs at
the same time.
• Multiprocessing OS : Support a program to run on more than
one central processing unit (CPU) at a time.
• Multitasking OS : Allows to run more than one program at a
time
• Multithreading OS : Allows different parts of a single program
to run concurrently (simultaneously or at the same time).
• Real time OS : These are designed to allow computers to
process and respond to input instantly
 OPERATING SYSTEM STRUCTURES
• A SIMPLE STRUCTURE: There are many operating systems
that have a rather simple structure.
• These started as small systems and rapidly expanded much
further than their scope. A common example of this is MS-
DOS.
• MS – DOS SYSTEM STRUCTURE
 MS – DOS Structure
For efficient performance and implementation an OS should be
partitioned into separate subsystems, each with carefully defined
tasks, inputs, outputs, and performance characteristics.
Application Programming

Resident System Programming

MS-DOS Drivers

ROM - BIOS Device Drivers

 LAYERED STRUCTURE
• One way to achieve modularity in the operating system is
the layered approach. It breaks the OS into a number of
smaller layers, each of which rests on the layer below it,
and relies solely on the services provided by the next lower
layer.
UNIX STRUCTURE
UNIX
 VIRTUAL MACHINE
• In a Virtual Machine - each process
"seems" to execute on its own
processor with its own memory,
devices, etc.
• The resources of the physical machine
are shared. Virtual devices are sliced
out of the physical ones. Virtual disks
are subsets of physical ones.
VIRTUAL MACHINE
 OPERATING SYSTEM SERVICES
• An OS provides environment for the execution of programs.
• It provides certain services to programs and to the users of those
programs.
• These OS services are provided for the convenience of the programmer,
to make the programming task easier. One set of operating-system
services provides functions that are helpful to the user are,
– PROGRAM EXECUTION
– I/O OPERATIONS
– FILE-SYSTEM MANIPULATION
– COMMUNICATIONS
– ERROR DETECTION
– RESOURCE ALLOCATION
– PROTECTION AND SECURITY
OPERATING SYSTEM SERVICES
 SYSTEM CALLS
• System calls provide the interface between a
process and the operating system.
• Typically written in a high-level language (C or C++)
• Mostly accessed by programs via a high-level
Application Program Interface (API) rather than
direct system call use
• Three most common APIs are Win32 API for Windows,
POSIX API for POSIX-based systems (including virtually
all versions of UNIX, Linux, and Mac OS X), and Java
API for the Java virtual machine (JVM)
SYSTEM CALLS
Illustrates the sequence of system calls required to copy a file
User application invoking the open( ) system call
• C program invoking printf() library call,
which calls write() system call

Standard C
Library Example
Three general methods are used to pass parameters
between a running program and the operating system.
– Simplest approach is to pass parameters in
registers.
– Store the parameters in a table in memory, and the
table address is passed as a parameter in a register
– Push (store) the parameters onto the stack by the
program, and pop off the stack by operating system.
Passing of parameters as a table
 TYPES OF SYSTEM CALLS
• System calls can be grouped roughly in to
five categories:
– Process control
– File management
– Device management
– Information maintenance
– Communications
 Types of System Calls
• Process control
– end, abort
– load, execute
– create process, terminate process
– get process attributes, set process attributes
– wait for time
– wait event, signal event
– allocate and free memory
• File management
– create file, delete file
– open, close file
– read, write, reposition
– get and set file attributes
 Types of System Calls (Cont.)
• Device management
– request device, release device
– read, write, reposition
– get device attributes, set device attributes
– logically attach or detach devices
• Information maintenance
– get time or date, set time or date
– get system data, set system data
– get and set process, file, or device attributes
• Communications
– create, delete communication connection
– send, receive messages
– transfer status information
– attach and detach remote devices
Examples of Windows and Unix System Calls
 Process
Processes
 A process can be thought of as a program in execution, A process will need
certain resources
 such as CPU time, memory, files, and I/O devices
 to accomplish its task.
 Process is an Active Entity and Program is a Passive Entity.
 A process is the unit of work in most systems.
 Systems consist of a collection of processes:
 Operating-system processes execute system code, and
 user processes execute user code.
 All these processes may execute concurrently.
 Sections of a Process

• Code section
• Data Section
• Heap Section
• Stack Section
 Process Control Block
Process Control Block(data structure used by computer operating systems to store
all the information about a process)
 Process Control Block
Process Control Block

 Process ID (PID)–unique identification number for each process

 Process State–New, Ready, Running, Waiting, Terminated
 Program Counter (PC)–A pointer to the address of the next instruction to be
executed for this process
 List of Open files– This information includes the list of files opened for a process.
 Memory limits – This field contains the information about memory management
system used by operating system. 
 CPU Registers–Register set where process needs to be stored for execution for
running state eg: accumulator, base and general purpose registers.
 Process States
Process States
 Process States
Process States
 Resources
Resources

The OS treats an entity as a resource if it satisfies the below characteristics:

 A process must request it from the OS.
 A process must suspend its operation until the entity is allocated to it.

The most common source is a file. A process must request a file before it can read it or
write it. Further, if the file is unavailable, the process must wait until it becomes
available. This abstract description of a resource is crucial to the way various
entities(such as files, memory and devices) are managed.
 Thread
Thread
A thread is a basic unit of CPU utilization. A thread, sometimes called as light
weight process whereas a process is a heavyweight process.
 Thread comprises:
 A thread ID
 A program counter
 A register set
 A stack.
 A process is a program that performs a single thread of execution i.e., a
process is a executing program with a single thread of control. For example,
when a process is running a word- processor program, a single thread of
instructions is being executed.
 Thread
Thread
 The single thread of control allows the process to perform only one task at one
time. For example, the user cannot simultaneously type in characters and run the
spell checker within the same process.
 Traditionally a process contained only a single thread of control as it ran, many
modern operating systems have extended the process concept to allow a process
to have multiple threads of execution and thus to perform more than one task at
a time.
 For example, in a browser, multiple tabs can be different threads
 
 Thread
Thread
 The operating system is responsible for the following activities in connection with
process and thread management:
 The creation and deletion of both user and system processes
 The scheduling of processes
 The provision of mechanisms for synchronization
 Communication
 Deadlock handling for processes.
 
 Process Model
Process Model
 Thread Model
Thread Model
Creation time for 50,000 Process and Thread
Applications
Processes
Processes
Thread
Thread
 
Benefits
 
The benefits of multi threaded programming can be broken down into four major categories:
Responsiveness

Multi threading an interactive application may allow a program to continue running even if part of
it is blocked or is performing a lengthy operation, thereby increasing responsiveness to the user. A
multi threaded web browser could still allow user interaction in one thread while an image was
being loaded in another thread.
Resource sharing

By default, threads share the memory and the resources of the process to which they belong. The
benefit of sharing code and data is that it allows an application to have several different threads of
activity within the same address space.
Benefits
 Economy
 Allocating memory and resources for process creation is costly. Because threads share
resources of the process to which they belong, it is more economical to create and context-
switch threads.
 It is much more time consuming to create and manage processes than threads. In Solaris, for
example, creating a process is about thirty times slower than is creating a thread, and context
switching is about five times slower.
 
Utilization of multiprocessor architectures
 The benefits of multithreading can be greatly increased in a multiprocessor architecture,
where threads may be running in parallel on different processors.
 A single threaded process can only run on one CPU, no matter how many are available.
 Multithreading on a multi-CPU machine increases concurrency.
 User Level Thread
User Level Thread
 
User threads are supported above the kernel and are managed without kernel support i.e., they are
implemented by thread library at the user level. These are the threads that application programmers use in
their programs.
 The library provides support for thread creation, scheduling and management with no support from the
kernel.
 Because the kernel is unaware of user-level threads, all thread creation and scheduling are done in user
space without the need for kernel intervention.

 Therefore, user-level threads are generally fast to create and manage. User-thread libraries include
POSIX Pthreads, Mach C-threads, and Solaris 2 UI-threads.
 User Level Thread
User Level Thread
 
Advantage:
 Fast
 Thread Management happens with thread
library.

Drawback:
 Lack of Coordination between Kernel and
Thread
 If one thread invokes system call, all threads
has to wait
 Kernel Level Thread
Kernel Level Thread
 
Kernel threads are supported and managed directly by the operating system.
 The kernel performs thread creation, scheduling and management in kernel space.
 Since thread management is done by the operating system, kernel threads are generally slower to
create and manage than are user threads.
 Also, in a multiprocessor environment, the kernel can schedule threads on different processors.
Most contemporary operating systems—including Windows NT, Windows 2000, Solaris 2,BeOS, and
Tru64 UNIX (formerly Digital UNIX)—support kernel threads 
 Kernel Level Thread
Kernel Level Thread
 
Advantage:
 Scheduler can decide to give more time to process
having more threads
 IF a Thread invokes a system call the remaining
thread will run.
Drawback:
 Slow
 Overhead to manage thread and process
 Multithreading Models
Multithreading Models

 Some operating system provide a combined user level thread and Kernel level
thread facility. Eg. Solaris.
Three common ways of establishing this relationship are:
 Many-to-One Model
 One-to-one Model
 Many-to-Many Model

 
 Multithreading Models
Many-to-One Model
 
 
 Multithreading Models
Many-to-One Model
 

 The many-to-one model maps many user-level threads to one kernel thread.
 Thread management is done by the thread library in user space, so it is
efficient; but the entire process will block if a thread makes a blocking system
call.
 Also, because only one thread can access the kernel at a time, multiple
threads are unable to run in parallel on multiprocessors. Green threads—a
thread library available for Solaris 2—uses this model.
 Multithreading Models
One-to-One Model

 
 Multithreading Models
One-to-One Model
 
 The one-to-one model maps each user thread to a kernel thread. It provides
more concurrency than the many-to-one model by allowing another thread
to run when a thread makes a blocking system call.
 It also allows multiple threads to run in parallel on multiprocessors.
 The only drawback to this model is that creating a user thread requires
creating the corresponding kernel thread.
 Linux, along with the family of Windows operating systems—including
Windows 95, 98, NT, 2000, and OS/2— implement the one-to-one model.
 Multithreading Models
Many-to-Many Model

 
 Multithreading Models
Many-to-Many Model
 
 The many-to-many model multiplexes many user-level threads to a smaller
or equal number of kernel threads.
 The one-to-one model allows for greater concurrency, but the developer has
to be careful not to create too many threads within an application.
 The many-to-many model suffers from neither of these shortcomings:
Developers can create as many user threads as necessary, and the
corresponding kernel threads can run in parallel on a multiprocessor. Also,
when a thread performs a blocking system call, the kernel can schedule
another thread for execution. Solaris 2, IRIX, HP-UX and Tru64 UNIX support
this model.
 Process Vs Thread
Difference between Process and Thread
 
Sl.No Process Thread

1 Process means any program is in Thread means segment of a process.

execution.
2 It takes more time for creation. It takes less time for creation.
3 Process is called heavy weight process. Thread is called light weight process.
4 Process switching needs interaction Thread switching does not need to
with operating system interact with operating system
5 In multiple processing environments All threads can share same set of open
each process executes the same code files, Child processes
but has its own memory and file
resources
 Object
Object

 Objects are the basic run time entities in an object-oriented system.

 They may represent a person, a place, a bank account, a table of data
or any item that the program has to handle.
 Programming problem is analysed in terms of objects and the nature of
communication between them.
 When a program is executed, the objects interact by sending messages
to one another.
 For example, if ‘customer’ and ‘account’ are the two objects in a
program, then the customer object may send a message to the account
object.
 Each object contains data and code to manipulate the data.
Object
 Object
 Real-world objects share two characteristics: They all have state and
behavior.
 Desktop lamp may have only two possible states (on and off) and two
possible behaviors (turn on, turn off), but your desktop radio might
have additional states (on, off, current volume, current station) and
behavior (turn on, turn off, increase volume, decrease volume, seek,
scan, and tune).
 You may also notice that some objects, in turn, will also contain other
objects.
 These real-world observations all translate into the world of object-
oriented programming.
 Device Management
Device Management

 Device management of operating system manages hardware devices via

their respective drivers
 It deals with the management of the I/O devices such as a keyboard,
magnetic tape, disk, printer, microphone, USB ports, scanner, camcorder
etc.as well as the supporting units like control channels.
 The basics of I/O devices can fall into 3 categories:
 Block device: it stores information in fixed-size block. example, disks.
 Character device: it delivers or accepts a stream of characters. example
printers, keyboards
 Network device: For transmitting data packets.
 Device Management
Activities of Device Management

 It keeps track of all the devices. The program responsible for keeping track of
all the devices is known as I/O controller.
 It provides a uniform interface to access devices with different physical
characteristics.
 It allocates the devices in an efficient manner.
 It deallocates the devices after usage.
 It decides which process gets the device and how much time it should be
used.
 It optimizes the performance of each individual device.
 Device Management
Approaches
Approaches

 Direct I/O
 Memory Mapped I/O
 Direct Memory Access
 Device Management
Approaches
Direct I/O

 CPU software explicitly transfer data to

and from the controller’s data registers.
 Separate Control signal for Memory and
I/O Devices
 Common Address and Data Bus for I/O
Devices and Memory
 Device Management
Approaches
MEMORY MAPPED I/O

 Device addressing
simplifies the interface
(device seen as a range of
memory locations)
 Common Control signal for
Memory and I/O Devices
 Common Address and Data
Bus for I/O Devices and
Memory
I/O System Organization
 An application process uses a device by issuing commands and exchanging data
with the device management (device driver).
 Device driver responsibilities:
 Implement communication APIs that abstract the functionality of the device
 Provide device dependent operations to implement functions defined by the
API
 API should be similar across different device drivers, reducing the amount of info
an application programmer needs to know to use the device
I/O System Organization
 I/O System Organization

Since each device controller is specific to a particular device, the device driver
implementation will be device specific, to
 Provide correct commands to the controller
 Interpret the controller status register (CSR) correctly

 Transfer data to and from device controller data registers as required for
correct device operation
 I/O with Polling
 Each I/O operation requires that the software and hardware coordinate their
operations to accomplish desired effect
 In direct I/O polling this coordination is done in the device driver;

 While managing the I/O, the device manager will poll the busy/done flags to
detect the operation’s completion; thus, the CPU starts the device, then polls
the CSR to determine when the operation has completed

 With this approach is difficult to achieve high CPU utilization, since the CPU
must constantly check the controller status
I/O with polling-read
 Application process requests a read operation

 The device driver queries the CSR to determine whether the device is idle; if
device is busy, the driver waits for it to become idle
 The driver stores an input command into the controller’s command register, thus
starting the device
 The driver repeatedly reads the content of CSR to detect the completion of the
read operation

 The driver copies the content of the controller's data register(s) into the main
memory user’s process’s space.
I/O with polling-write
 The application process requests a write operation
 The device driver queries the CSR to determine if the device is idle; if busy, it
will wait to become idle
 The device driver copies data from user space memory to the controller’s
data register(s)
 The driver stores an output command into the command register, thus
starting the device
 The driver repeatedly reads the CSR to determine when the device
completed its operation.
 Interrupt driven I/O
 In a multiprogramming system the wasted CPU time (in polled I/O) could be used by
another process; because the CPU is used by other processes in addition to the one
waiting for the I/O operation completion.
 This may be remedied by use of interrupts
 The reason for incorporating the interrupts into a computer hardware is to eliminate
the need for a device driver to constantly poll the CSR
 Instead polling, the device controller “automatically” notifies the device driver when
the operation has completed.
 Interrupt driven I/O
Interrupt driven I/O
 The application process requests a read operation

 The device driver queries the CSR to find out if the device is idle; if busy, then it waits until
the device becomes idle
 The driver stores an input command into the controller’s command register, thus starting
the device
 When this part of the device driver completes its work, it saves information regarding the
operation it began in the device status table; this table contains an entry for each device in
system; the information written into this table contains the return address of the original call
and any special parameters for the I/O operation; the CPU, after doing this, can be used by
other program, so the device manager invokes the scheduler part of the process manager.
It then terminates
 Interrupt driven I/O
Interrupt driven I/O
 The device completes the operation and interrupts the CPU, therefore causing an interrupt
handler to run
 The interrupt handler determines which device caused the interrupt; it then branches to the
device handler for that device
 The device driver retrieves the pending I/O status information from the device status table
 (a,b) The device driver copies the content of the controller’s data register(s) into the user
process’s space
 The device handler returns the control to the application process (knowing the return
address from the device status table). Same sequence (or similar) of operations will be
accomplished for an output operation.
 Buffering
Buffering
Buffering is a technique by which a device manager keeps the slower I/O devices busy when a
process is not requiring I/O operations.

A buffer is a memory area that stores data being transferred between two devices or between a
device and an application.
 Input buffering is the process of reading the data into the primary memory before the process
requests it.
 Output buffering is the process of saving the data in the memory and then writing it to the
device while the process continues its execution.
 Buffering
Hardware level buffering
Consider a simple character device controller that reads a single byte form a modem for each input
operation.

 Normal operation: read occurs, the driver passes a read command to the controller; the

controller instructs the device to put the next character into one-byte data controller’s

register; the process calling for byte waits for the operation to complete and then retrieves

the character from the data register

Add a hardware buffer to the controller to decrease the amount of time the process has to wait

Buffered operation: the next character to be read by the process has already been

placed into the data register, even the process has not yet called for the read operation
 Buffering
Hardware level buffering
 Buffering
Driver level buffering
This is generally called double buffering. One buffer is for the driver to store the data while waiting for the
higher layers to read it. The other buffer is to store data from the lower level module. This technique can be
used for the block-oriented devices (buffers must be large enough to accommodate a block of data).
 Buffering
Driver level buffering

 The number of buffers is extended from two to n. The data producer is writing into buffer i while the
data consumer is reading from buffer j.
 In this configuration buffers j+1 to n-1 and 0 to i-1 are full. This is known as circular buffering
technique.
 Device Driver
Device driver
 It is a software program that controls a particular type of device attached to the computer. It
provides an interface to the hardware devices without the requirement to know the precise
information about the hardware.
 A device driver communicates with the device through a bus or communication sub
system.
Responsibilities
 Initialize devices
 Interpreting the commands from the operating system
 Manage data transfers
 Accept and process interrupts
 Maintain the integrity of driver and kernel data structures
 Device Driver
Two ways of dealing with the device drivers
– Old way: Driver is part of the operating system, to add a new device driver, the whole OS must
have been complied
– Modern way: Drivers installation is allowed without re-compilation of the OS by using
reconfigurable device drivers; the OS dynamically binds the OS code to the driver functions.

 A reconfigurable device driver has to have a fixed, standardized API

 The Kernel has to provide an interface to the device driver to allocate/de-allocate space for
buffers, manipulate tables in the kernel etc.
 Device Driver
Reconfigurable device drivers
The driver - kernel interface
 The OS uses an indirect reference table to access the different driver entry points, based on
the device identifier and function name. The indirect reference table is filled with appropriate
values whenever the device driver loads
 When a process performs a system call, the kernel passes the call onto the device driver via
the indirect reference table.
 Direct Memory Access
DIRECT MEMORY ACCESS
 Involves designing of hardware to avoid the CPU perform the transfer of information
between the device.
 Normally Data transfer from I/O to Memory happens in two cycle.
 I/O to CPU
 CPU to Memory
 Using DMA data can be transferred directly from I/O to Memory
 Direct Memory Access
Direct Memory Access
 It consists of Four Blocks
 CPU
 DMAC(Direct Memory Access Controller)
 Disk controller
 Memory
Steps in Direct Memory Access
 CPU will set the registers of DMAC(ie) CPU programs the DMAC by setting its Registers
 CPU instruct the disk controller to read the data from the drive and store it in buffer.
 DMAC request disk controller to transfer data to memory
 Disk Controller will transfer the data to memory
 Disk Controller will send the acknowledgement to the DMA Controller after transferring the
data.
 After getting the acknowledgement the DMA Controller will decrement the count.
 Once the Byte count is zero, it tells to CPU the Data transfer is over.
 Direct Memory Access
DIRECT MEMORY ACCESS