7.

PROGRAMMING

Subtitle
Content

 7.1 Evolution
 7.2 Translation
 7.3 Programming paradigms
 7.4 Common concepts
Objectives

After studying this chapter, the student should be able to:

 Describe the evolution of programming languages from machine language to high-Level languages.

 Understand how a program in a high-level language is translated into machine language using an interpreter or
a compiler.

 Distinguish between four computer language paradigms.

 Understand the procedural paradigm and the interaction between a program unit and data items in the
paradigm.

 Understand the object-oriented paradigm and the interaction between a program unit and objects in this
paradigm.

 Define functional paradigm and understand its applications.

 Define a declaration paradigm and understand its applications.

 Define common concepts in procedural and object-oriented languages.

1 - EVOLUTION
1. EVOLUTION

 To write a program for a computer, we must use a computer language. A computer language is a set of
predefined words that are combined into a program according to predefined rules (syntax). Over the
years, computer languages have evolved from machine language to high- level languages.

Figure 7.1 Evolution of programing

2. Machine languages

 In the earliest days of computers, the only

programming languages available were
machine languages.
 Each computer had its own machine
language, which was made of streams of 0s
and 1s.
 Use eleven lines of code to read two
integers, add them, and print the result.
These lines of code, when written in
machine language, make eleven lines of
binary code, each of 16 bits, as shown in
Table 8.1.
Table 7.1 Code in machine language to add two integers
2. Assembly languages

 The next evolution in programming came with the

idea of replacing binary code for instruction and
addresses with symbols or mnemonics. Because
they used symbols, these languages were first
known as symbolic languages.

 The set of these mnemonic languages were later

referred to as assembly languages. The assembly
language for our hypothetical computer to replace
the machine language in Table 8.2 is shown in
Table 9.2.

Table 7.2 Code in machine language to add two integers

3. High-level languages

 Although assembly languages greatly improved

programming efficiency, they still required
programmers to concentrate on the hardware they
were using. Working with symbolic languages
was also very tedious, because each machine
instruction had to be individually coded.

 The desire to improve programmer efficiency and

to change the focus from the computer to the
problem being solved led to the development of
high-level language

 Over the years, various languages, most notably

BASIC, COBOL, Pascal, Ada, C, C+ +, and Java,
were developed. Figure 8-3 shows the code for
adding two integers as it would appear in the C++
Figure 7.2 Code in machine language to add two
integers
2- TRANSLATION
1. Introduction

 Programs today are normally written in one of the high-level languages. To run the program on a
computer, the program needs to be translated into the machine language of the computer on which it will
run.

 The program in a high-level language is called the source program. The translated program in machine
language is called the object program.

 Two methods are used for translation: compilation and interpretation.

 Compilation : A compiler normally translates the whole source program into the object program.

 Interpretation : Some computer languages use an interpreter to translate the source program into the
object program. Interpretation refers to the process of translating each line of the source program into the
corresponding line of the object program and executing the line.
2. Translation process

 Compilation and interpretation differ in that the first translates the whole source code before
executing it, while the second translates and executes the source code a line at a time.

Figure 7.3 Evolution of programing

 Lexical analyzer reads the source code, symbol by symbol, and creates a list of tokens in the source language.

 Syntax analyzer parses a set of tokens to find instructions.

 Semantic analyzer checks the sentences created by the syntax analyzer to be sure that they contain no ambiguity.

 Code generator After unambiguous instructions are created by the semantic analyzer, each instruction is converted
to a set of machine language instructions for the computer on which the program will run.
3 - PROGRAMMING PARADIGMS
1. Introduction

 Today computer languages are categorized according to the approach they use to
solve a problem. A paradigm, therefore, is a way in which a computer language
looks at the problem to be solved. We divide computer languages into four
paradigms: procedural, object-oriented, functional, and declarative

Figure 7.4 Categories of programming languages

2. The procedural paradigm

 In the procedural paradigm (or imperative paradigm) we can think of a program as

an active agent that manipulates passive objects. We encounter many passive
objects in our daily life: a stone, a book, a lamp, and so on. A passive object cannot
initiate an action by itself, but it can receive actions from active agents.

Figure 7.5 The concept of the procedural paradigm

3. The object-oriented paradigm

 The object-oriented paradigm deals with active objects instead of passive objects.
We encounter many active objects in our daily life: a vehicle, an automatic door, a
dishwasher, and so on.
 The actions to be performed on these objects are included in the object: the objects
need only to receive the appropriate stimulus from outside to perform one of the
actions.

Figure 7.6 The concept of an object-oriented paradigm

4. The functional paradigm

 In the functional paradigm a program is considered a mathematical function. In this context, a

function is a black box that maps a list of inputs to a list of outputs.

Figure 7.7 The concept of an object-oriented paradigm

Figure 7.8 Extracting the third element of a list

5. The declarative paradigm

 A declarative paradigm uses the principle of logical reasoning to answer queries. It

is based on formal logic defined by Greek mathematicians and later developed into
first-order predicate calculus.
 For example, the famous rule of deduction in logic is:

 Using this rule and the two following facts:

 we can deduce a new fact:

4- COMMON CONCEPTS
1. Introduction

 In this section we conduct a quick navigation through some procedural languages to

find common concepts.
 Some of these concepts are also available in most object-oriented languages
because, as we explained, an object-oriented paradigm uses the procedural
paradigm when creating methods..
 Identifiers
 Data types
 Variables
 Literals
 Constants
 Inputs and Outputs
2. Identifiers

 One feature present in all procedural languages, as well as in other languages, is the
identifier—that is, the name of objects. Identifiers allow us to name objects in the
program.

Figure 7.10 Example of Identifiers

3. Data types

 A data type defines a set of values and a set of operations that can be applied to
those values. The set of values for each type is known as the domain for the type.
 Most languages define two categories of data types: simple types (Primitive in Java)
and composite types (Non-Primitive in Java).

Figure 7.11 Example of data type

4. Variables

 Variables are names for memory locations. Although the addresses are used by the
computer internally, it is very inconvenient for the programmer to use addresses.
 A programmer can use a variable, such as count, to store the integer value of a
count number received in a test.

Figure 7.12 Example of variable

5. Literals

 A literal is a predetermined value used in a program. For example, if we need to

calculate the area of circle when the value of the radius is stored in the variable r,
we can use the expression 3.14 × r2, in which the approximate value of π (pi) is
used as a literal.

Figure 7.13 Example of literal

5. Constants

 The use of literals is not considered good programming practice unless we are sure
that the value of the literal will not change with time (such as the value of π in
geometry).
 However, most literals may change value with time. For example, if a sales tax is 8
per cent this year, it may not be the same next year.

Figure 7.14 Example of constants

7. Inputs and Outputs

 Almost every program needs to read and/or write data. These operations can be
quite complex, especially when we read and write large files. Most programming
languages use a predefined function for input and output.
 Input : Data is input by either a statement or a predefined function. Example in C
language

 Output : Output Data is output by either a statement or a predefined function