DEBRE-MARKOS UNIVERSITY

Institute of Technology
Department of mechanical and industrial engineering

CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION–CONCEPT OF
STRESS
‘’Motivation and Goal Setting:
Paving your way to success’’

By Esubalew,N
 1.1 Introduction
 Many structural elements like beams. Columns, cylinders ,shafts are used for the benefit of

mankind.
 They may be made up of steel, copper, aluminum, concrete or any other materials.

 In the time of acting the load on those structural element, the structure develops resisting

force and undergoes deformation when the applied force is more than resisting force.
 The effect of these resisting forces, on the structural element is treated under the subject of

strength of materials
 Strength of materials are deals about the relations between the external forces applied to

elastic bodies and the resulting deformations and stresses.

 Or it is a resistance by which material of the body oppose the deformation due to external

force.
 application In the design of structures and any machines.

 The subject general called strength of materials includes the study of the distribution of

internal forces, the stability and deformation of various elements of machine and
structures subjected to straining action.
1.2 Forces and Stresses
 Forces are produced by the action of gravity, by accelerations and impacts of moving
parts, by gasses and fluids under pressure, by the transmission of mechanical power, etc.
 When an object is subjected to a force in the line with the line of symmetry the object said
to be Axially loaded member.
 When a force is applied to compress the object, the force is a compressive force, and the
member is aside to be compressed member.

 In contrary an object is said to a tensile loaded member if the force (tensile force) is
applied to pull the object.

 When an external force acts on a body, the body tends to undergo some deformation. Due
to cohesion between the molecules, the body resists deformation. This resistance by
which material of the body opposes the deformation is known as strength of material.
 Within certain limit (i.e., in the elastic stage) the resistance offered by the material is
proportional to the deformation brought out on the material by the external force.
 Also within this limit the resistance is equal to the external force(or applied load).
 But beyond the elastic stage the resistance offered by the material is less than the
applied load. In such a case, the deformation continues, until failure takes please.
 this applied load per unit area(contact area) is called stress or intensity of stress.

Stress = , =

 S.I. unit = = = Mpa …..since (Pascal= )

 1.3 Types of stress
1.Normal stress
the stress which acts in a direction perpendicular to the area.
1.1, tensile stress: between two parts of a body exists when each draws the other
toward itself. It Couse contraction perpendicular to its direction(elongate the length.)
The stress induced in the body, when subjected to two equal and opposite pull force.
1.2, compressive stress: between two parts of a body exists when each push the other
toward itself. It Couse elongation perpendicular to its direction(shorten the length.) The
stress induced in the body, when subjected to two equal and opposite push force.
 2.shear stress (
 The stress induced in the body, when subjected to two equal and opposite forces which
are acting tangentially (Laterally) across the resisting section as shown in fig. as a result
of which the body tends to shear off across the section, is known as shear stress. This
stress is act tangential to the area.

=
 3. Bearing stress(contact stress)
 Consider two plates connected by rivet, the rivet exerts a force on a plate which is equal
and opposite to the force that is created by the plate on to the rivet. The force which is
exerted by the rivet is the result of the elementary force distributed on the inside surface
of the half cylinder of the diameter “d” and of length of “t” equal to the thickens of the
plate.

b=
 1.5.Ultimate and Allowable Stress: Factor of Safety
Ultimate load:. It is the largest applied load to the material ether break or begins to carry
less loads, and also the stress is called ultimate stress.
Ultimate Stress = , u =
In practice it is not possible to design a mechanical component or structural component
permitting stressing up to ultimate stress for the following reason.
1. Reliability of material may not be 100%.there may be small spots of flaws.
2. The resulting deformation may obstruct the functional performance of the
component.
3. The load taken by designer are only estimated loads. occasionally there can be
overloading, unexpected impact and temperature loadings may act in the life span of
the member.
4. There are certain ideal conditions assumed in the analysis (like boundary conditions).
Actually ideal conditions will not be available and, therefore, the calculated stress will
not be 100% real stresses.
 Hence, the maximum stress to which any member is designed is much less than the
ultimate stress, and this stress is called allowable stress. The ratio of ultimate stress to
working stress is called factor of safety.
factor of safety = =
factor of safety = …….for brittle material
factor of safety =
=
Allowable load; it is the maximum load that a structural member or machine component
will be allowed to carry under a normal conditions of utilization in considerably smaller
than the ultimate load.
= = , =
 Stress and strain due to axial loading
Strain:- no material is perfectly rigid. Under the action of force or load ductile material undergoes
changes in shape and size. Actually all materials including steel, cast iron, brass, concrete etc.
undergo similar deformation when loaded.
Their are instruments like,
 Extensimeter
 Electric strain gauges
 Universal testing machine……….which can measure extension of magnitude 1/100 th, 1/1000th of
a millimeter.
strain is the alternation of shape as dimension resulting from the stress.
If a bar is subjected to a direct load, and hence a stress, the bar will change in length.
If the bar has an original length L and changes in length by an amount the strain produced is defined
as follows:
 Strain is thus a measure of the deformation of the material
 it has no units; it is simply a ratio of two quantities with the same unit

Alternatively, strain can be expressed as a percentage strain

 What is the difference b/n Lateral strain and longitudinal strain?

 when the body subjected to an axial tensile load, there is an increase in the length of the body.
 But at the same time there is a decrease in other dimensions of the body at right angles to the
line of action of the applied load.
 Thus the body is having axial deformation and also deformation at right angles to the line of
action of the applied load(i.e. lateral deformation).
1) If longitudinal strain is tensile, the lateral strain will be compressive.
2) If longitudinal strain is compressive, the lateral strain will be tensile.
3) Hence every longitudinal strain in the direction of load is accompanied by lateral strains of
the opposite kind in all directions perpendicular to the load.
Poisson's ratio
 In all engineering material the elongation produced by an axial tensile force P, in the
direction of the force is accompanied by a contraction in any transvers.
 Assuming the materials to be both homogenous and isotropic (the mechanical properties will
be assumed to be independent of both position and direction) it follows the strain must have
the same value for any transvers direction. The ratio of lateral strain to the longitudinal
strain is a constant for a given material, when the material is stressed within the elastic limit.
This ratio is called Poisson's ratio
 Stress-strain diagram
 Stress –strain diagram is a diagram representing the relation between stress and
strain in a given material.
 As the load increase the distance between the two points will be increase.
 Recording the values of the load applied with the corresponding value of L shall be
done. then the stress equals P/A and the strain equals L/L will be calculated.
Ductile materials :-
 Characterized by their ability to yield at normal temperature.
 As the material is subjected to an increasing load ,its length is increases linearly with
the load with very slow rate.
 Thus the initial portion of the stress –strain diagram will be straight line with a steep
slope.
 After a critical values of as been reached the material undergoes a large deformation
with a relatively small increase in the applied load.
 After a certain maximum value of the load has been reached the diameter of a portion
of the material begins to decrease because of local instability.
 Thus phenomena is known as Necking.
 After necking has been seen somewhat lower loads are sufficient to keep the material
elongate further until it finally breaks.
 The stress at which the yield is indicated is called yield strength of the material.
 The stress corresponding to the maximum load applied to the material is known as
the ultimate strength.
 The stress corresponding to the rupture (faller) is called the breaking strength.
 Stress strain diagram for structural steel

Point A:- limit of proportionality, it is a limiting value of the stress up to which the
stress is proportional to the strain.
Point B:- upper yield point, it is the point wear the yielding starts.
Point c:- lower yield point, the load required to maintain the yield.
Point D:- ultimate stress, the maximum stress that the material can be resist.
Point E:- breaking (failure point), the stress at which the material fails.
 The same result can be developed while applying compressive load, but for ductile
material under compressive test their is no neck formation.
Brittle materials:-
 In these material, there is no appreciable change in rate of strain. Their is no yield
point and no necking takes place. Ultimate point and breaking point are one and at the
same. The strain at failure is very small.
 For most brittle material ultimate compressive stress in compression is Mach longer
than in tension.
Stress strain diagram for brittle material

Elasticity and elastic limit

 When an external force acts on the body, the body tends to undergo some deformation if the
external force is removed and the body comes to its origin shape and size(which means the
deformation disappears completely), is known as elastic body.
 This property, By virtue of which certain material return back to their original position after the
removal of the external force, is called elasticity.
 The body will regain its previous shape and size only when the deformation caused by the
external force, is within a certain limit.
 Thus there is a limiting value of the force up to and with in which, the deformation completely
disappears on the removal of the force.
 The value of stress corresponding to this limiting force is known as the elastic limit of the
material.
 If the external force is so large that the stress exceeds the elastic limit, the material loses to
some extent its property of elasticity.
 If now the force is removed , the material will not return to its origin shape and size and there
will be a residual deformation in the material.
Hooke's Law And Elastic Moduli
Hooke's law states that when a material is loaded within elastic limit, the stress is proportional
to the strain produced by the stress.
 This means the ratio of the stress to the corresponding strain is constant within the elastic
limit.
 This constant is known as modulus of Elasticity or Modulus of rigidity or Elastic Moduli.
This constant is given the symbol E and termed the modulus of elasticity or Young’s modulus.

 This is the relationship between stress and strain for one dimensional stress system.
Shear modulus(modulus of rigidity):- it is the ratio of shear stress to the corresponding shear
strain within the elastic limit.
G=
As lateral strain is opposite in sign to longitudinal strain, hence
Lateral strain = - longitudinal strain
A three –dimensional body subjected to three
orthogonal normal stress acting in the
direction of “x”, “y” and “z” Respectively.
Consider the strains produce by each stress
separately.
The stress will produce strain in the direction of x and also in the direction of y and z. the strain in the
direction of x will be whereas the strain in the direction of y and z will be - ,
similarly
in y direction, , and - , in x and z direction
In z direction, , and - , in x and y direction
Let and are total strains in the direction of x, y and z respectively. then