VII:

COMMUNICATION
FOR ACADEMIC
PURPOSES

PURPOSIVE COMMUNICATION
• Define academic writing and differentiate it from other forms
of writing
• Identify the audience, purpose and language used in
academic writing
• Identify different kinds of academic writing output
• Apply various techniques in citing references and
bibliography
• Write reaction paper and concept paper
 TOPICS

a. Academic Writing
b. Research Proposal
c. Book Review
d. Concept Paper
e. Position Paper
ACADEMIC WRITING
• Academic writing refers to a very specific style of expression that
industry experts use, as academicians, in order to define sets of
intellectual limitations, boundaries, and expertise in the industry.
• It is generally characterized by the use of a formal, investigatory
tone, third-person perspective, clearly defined research problem,
and accurate use and usage of words.
• Academic writing is not just about data collection and fact
gathering. It is a holistic, intellectual process that demands
inquisition, observation, investigation, interpretation, analysis, and
critical reflection of the found facts or data.
• Also, it presents to the audience an informed argument constructed
from the academician's field of experience and exposure in their
respective industries.
 A. CONCEPTS OF ACADEMIC
WRITING
• First, academic writing is by professionals for other professionals across all
professions. College prepares learners to become professionals. And college
students, like you, are exposed to activities that professionals are required to
perform in their workplace.
*Activities such as reading, thinking, researching, arguing, and writing about
ideas stimulate your cognitive being. This means that when you write an
academic paper, you are in fact writing not only as a college student but as a
soon-to-Be professional wanting to contribute in your field of endeavor. You
become a significant part of the profession. Therefore, learning the conventions
and standards of academic writing is operative.
 A. CONCEPTS OF ACADEMIC
WRITING
• Second, academic writing is for topics that are of interest to the
academic environment.

• Third, academic writing should present an informed argument.

The first thing that you will have to do to be able to create an
informed argument is to identify and separate what is already
known about the topic from what you think about it. What you
think about the topic will guide you to construct a sound,
informed argument.
To achieve this, provide clear and complete explanations of topic and point of
view that you want to share.

a) USE OF RESEARCH. Apart from having a collection of relevant professional and

academic sources, never forget to integrate each of them into your own writing so
that your paper will be further strengthened.
b) USE CORRECT CITATION. Depending on the institution and the program you
belong to,' learn to cite references correctly. The American Psychological
Association (APA) Style is one citation style that is commonly used in academic
writing.
c) WRITING STYLE. Although it has been said that academic writing demands a
mote fanned tone and style in writing, do not forget that your character should also
be reflected on your paper. Be critical so that you would be able to present an error-
free paper -a sign that you care for your readers.
b) USE CORRECT CITATION. Depending on the institution and the program you belong
to,' learn to cite references correctly. The American Psychological Association (APA) Style
is one citation style that is commonly used in academic writing.

In-text citations
The basic elements needed for an in-text citation are the author’s surname and the publication year. Sometimes, page numbers are also
included, especially when quotes are mentioned in the text. In-text citations are mentioned in the text in two ways: as a narrative citation or a
parenthetical citation.

Narrative
Narrative citations are incorporated into the text and act as a part of the sentence. Usually, narrative citations use the author’s name in the
text and the publication year is enclosed in parenthesis after the name. An example of a narrative citation for one author is given below:

Barbarin (2013) examined socioemotional learning in African boys.

Parenthetical
Parenthetical citations add the author’s name and the publication year at the end of the sentence in parenthesis. An example of a
parenthetical citation is given below:

Inhibition and working memory in young children were studied extensively (Aase, 2014).
B. HOW ARE ACADEMIC PAPERS ASSESSED?

Academic papers are assessed in many different ways. Here are some of the
basic assessment questions you may want to ask yourself with before
submitting your academic paper.

• Is your academic paper reflective of your chosen topic and thesis statement?
• Is your thesis statement reflective of your stand as a researcher?
• Is your problem clearly stated?
• Is your related literature really related to your topic?
• Are all your sources correctly cited?
• Is your paper logically organized?
• Is your paper able to present new or alternative knowledge
or insight that will influence your field of endeavor?
• Is your paper complete with definition and description of
methodology, theory, research tool, and research question?
• Are your observations, findings, conclusions, and outcomes
clearly stated?
• Is your writing style adherent to acceptable standards?
• Is your academic paper free from plagiarism?
C. STYLES IN WRITING ACADEMIC PAPERS
As an academic writer, you can consider these four types of writing:
persuasive, expository, descriptive, and narrative. You have to be keen in
selecting which of these writing styles you are going to use as each has a
specific purpose.

To convince readers of your informed argument, use persuasive writing.

This shall provide your readers the evidences from sources, references, and
other related studies you have collated in order for you to justify and rationalize
your standpoint given your chosen topic and thesis statement, and more
importantly convince your audience. Additionally, essays that are argumentative
in nature are written in this style. Business correspondences such as your letter
of application, complaint, recommendation, and business proposals are also
written in this style.
• When you would want your paper to provide information or explain
a concept, then use expository writing. This writing style, being the
most common, demands not your opinion as a writer but rather your
skill as a presenter of facts of the topic needed to be expounded. Use
this writing style to present statistics, procedures, and technical,
business, and scientific information.
• When you are tasked to account experiences, persons, things, and
events, that you would need to use descriptive writing. This writing
style may come to fiction writing however, it sometimes demands
first-hand lived experiences you have had with what is needed to be
described. It is also in this style that you need to show rather than
simply just tell your experience. The audience must be able to
imagine, through your words, what is being described. Journal
writing, poetry writing, memoirs are but some of the examples of
descriptive writing.
• For longer pieces of academic papers, use narrative writing. Unlike
expository writing that intends to provide information, narrative
writing demands more specific details such as characters, settings,
and conflicts to be able to communicate a complete story.
D. Conventions of Writing Academic Papers
Hall (1998) presents several basic rules to guide you in your writing
academic papers.
• Write in complete sentences, always. Make it short, clear, and complete.
Make your verb agree with your subject. Split long sentences to avoid
ambiguity and grammatical flaws. It also will help your reader
experience ease of reading. Make it a habit to write sentences that make
sense if they were read out independently of the sentence before and
after it.
• Know the functions of your punctuations particularly the period,
question mark, comma, colon, dash, and hyphen, so you can use them
appropriately.
• The use and usage of language are of primary importance. Be very keen
on selecting appropriate words that would express your thoughts and be
very certain how you will be using the words you have chosen.
Confusion in word selection tends to confuse the readers.
D. Conventions of Writing Academic Papers
• Never use contractions in academic papers, more particularly in
research documents and business documents, unless it is a direct
quote from the source.
• Be certain of when and how you will express your numbers,
dates, abbreviations, acronyms, and capitalizations.
• If it is not fiction that you are writing as an academic paper, then
your tone should be formal, impersonal, and jargon and cliché
free. Optimize your academic paper by providing a fresh or
alternative perspective of the topic that you would need to
discuss' and always present your thoughts in logical sequences.
• To note, paragraphs are expected to have a minimum of SO
words and a maximum of 200 words. However, it can go beyond
the maximum specifically when your task is to explain a topic
thoroughly.
D. Conventions of Writing Academic Papers
• Know your transitional devices. Determine how your transitions
function so that you can better and more effectively link your
paragraphs together.
• Be very mindful of your academic paper's organization.
Remember the most basic introduction, body, and conclusion
pattern. Never forget to provide verifiable facts to support your
every claim. Provide examples should you want to further clarify.
• Never plagiarize. Do not ever think that because your professors
handle many courses, they will not anymore lead your academic
paper. They will. They will find time to review all the academic
papers they require students to submit. They will check your
sources, references, in-text citations, and bibliography.
• For your information, an academic paper can be labeled as a plagiarized
work if It contains a direct quotation without enclosing it in a quotation
mark and citing its actual source if it has expressions or concepts that
are paraphrased but no attribution vies given to whomever It is due, or
the paper depended on a specific source without giving a proper
citation. So, to avoid receiving a failing mark, more importantly, losing
your Integrity, do not copy, paste, and plagiarize.
TOPIC 2: RESEARCH
PROPOSAL
UNDERSTANDING THE RESEARCH REPORT

Have you ever written a report in which you used several different sources?
If so, you have already produced a research report. A research report is a
written report that presents the results of a focused, in-depth study of a
specific topic. Its writer chooses a topic, gathers information, about the topic
from several sources, and then presents that information in an organized
way.

Writing a research report will probably be the most time-consuming and

challenging task that you will ever do as a student. Don’t let the weight of
the task scare you, though. You will find researching and writing your report
quite easy if you take one step at a time.
A. CHOOSING A SUBJECT THAT YOU CARE ABOUT

One of the most important parts of doing research is choosing a topic. By choosing wisely,
you can ensure that your research will go smoothly and that you will enjoy doing it. A
subject is a broad area of interest, such as Philippine history or animal behavior. One way
to approach the search for a research-report topic is to first choose a general area of
interest and then focus on some part of it. Make sure that you have a real reason for
wanting to explore the subject. Often, the best subjects for research reports are the tines
that are related to your own life or to the lives of people you know. You may begin by
exploring general subject areas that interest you. Once you have a general subject that you
are interested in, such as endangered species or civil rights, the next step is to narrow that
subject to a specific topic that can be treated in a research report.
B. DOING PRELIMINARY RESEARCH

If you already know a great deal about your subject, then you can probably think of a specific topic
to research in that subject area. However, if you are not, it is a good idea to do some preliminary
research to identify potential topics. Here are a few suggestions:

Use Freewriting Techniques

• Freewriting or clustering. Write whatever comes to mind about the subject for five minutes, or
draw a cluster diagram in which you use lines to connect your subject with related ideas.
• Brainstorming. Working with a group of friends or classmates, write down a list of topics that
come to mind as people think about the subject.
• Questioning. Write a list of questions about the subject. Begin each question with the word who,
what, when, where, why, or how, or start your question with what if...
• Discussing. Listen to what other students know about your subject, what interests them about it,
and what problems they think might have in researching it.
C. LIMITING YOUR SUBJECT TO A SPECIFIC TOPIC

Once you have come up with a list of ideas for possible topics, you need to evaluate
and limit them—that is on the basis of certain criteria. Here are some criteria for
judging a research topic:

1. The topic should be interesting. Often the most interesting topic is one that is related to
your family history, to your future, to your major goals, to the place where you live or
would like to live, to a career that interests you, or to a hobby or other activities that you
enjoy. The topic might be something that caught your interest in the past, perhaps
something you have read about or have studied in school.
2. The topic should be covered in readily available sources. When considering a topic,
always check the catalogs in your library to see if the sources are available.
C. LIMITING YOUR SUBJECT TO A SPECIFIC TOPIC

3. The topic should be significant. Choose a topic that is significant for you, one
worth your time and energy.
4. The topic should be objective. Make sure that you will be able to gather
enough facts about the topic to support your argument.
5. You should not simply repeat material available in other sources. You should
look for a topic that allows you to come up with your own angle or approach.
6. The topic should be narrow enough to be treated fully. Ask your teacher how
many pages long your paper should be, and choose a topic that is narrow enough
to be treated in a paper of that length.
D.WRITING A STATEMENT OF CONTROLLING PURPOSE

Once you have decided on a specific topic, your next step is to write a
statement of controlling purpose. This is a sentence or pair of sentences that tell
you what you want to accomplish in your report. It is called a statement of
controlling purpose because it controls, or guides, your research. The statement of
controlling purpose usually contains one or more keywords that tell what the
report is going to accomplish. Keywords that often appear in statements of
controlling purpose include analyze, classify, compare, contrast, define, describe,
determine, establish, explain, identify, prove, and support.
E. PREPARING A LIST OF POSSIBLE SOURCES (A WORKING
BIBLIOGRAPHY)

Once you have written a statement of controlling purpose, you are ready to put
together a list of potential sources. This first of sources that might be useful to
you in writing your paper is called a working bibliography. You will have to use
some sources during your preliminary research, and you will probably want to
include some or all of those sources in your working bibliography. As you
continue to research and draft, you may discover that some of the sources in your
initial list are not useful, and you might find new sources to add to the list. Before
you decide to ass a new source to your list, however, be sure to evaluate it.
E. PREPARING A LIST OF POSSIBLE SOURCES (A WORKING
BIBLIOGRAPHY)

• Other people.
• Institutions and organizations
• The government
• The library/media center
• Bookstores
• Bibliographies.
• On-line information services
• Reference works.
F.EVALUATING POSSIBLE SOURCES

After you locate a potential source, you need to decide whether it will be
useful to you. The following questions will help you evaluate your source:

• Is the source authoritative?

• Is the source unbiased?
• Is the source up-to-date?
• Is the work written at an appropriate level?
• Is the source highly recommended?
A.TAKING NOTES AND DEVELOPING A ROUGH, OR WORKING
OUTLINE

After you have written a statement of controlling details and have prepared
a working bibliography, you are ready to begin gathering information for
your report. Begin with the most promising sources recorded on your
bibliography cards—the ones that are most general, the most authoritative,
or the easiest to find.
The following guidelines will help you improve your note-taking skills.

1. Keep your topic, controlling purpose, and audience in mind at all times. Do
not record material unrelated to your topic.
2. Make sure that the summaries and paraphrases accurately express the ideas in
your sources.
3. Be accurate. Make sure to copy the direct quotations word for word, with
capitalization, spelling, and punctuation precisely as in the original. Make sure
that every direct quotation begins and ends with quotation marks.
4. Double-check statistics and facts to make sure that you have them right.
The following guidelines will help you improve your note-taking skills.

5. Distinguish between fact and opinion by labeling such opinion as “Dr. Drake
thinks that…” or “According to Pedro Benoza..”
6. Quote only the important parts of the passage. Indicate words that you have left
out by using points of ellipsis – a series of three spaced dots (…) – enclosed in
brackets. Use only three dots when cutting material within the sentence. Use a
period before the dots when cutting a whole sentence, a paragraph, or more than a
paragraph. Use a period after the dots when you cut material from the end of a
sentence. Use also brackets ([]) to enclose any explanatory information that you
would add within a quotation.
7. Always double-page page references. It’s so easy to copy these incorrectly.
A.WRITING YOUR FIRST DRAFT

The comforting thing about a rough draft is that it does not have to be perfect.
You can rework your draft as often you like and watch it take shape gradually. In
other words, you do not have to hit a home run your first time at bat. You can have
as many chances on the plate you want.
The Style of the Draft

A research report is a type of objective, formal writing. Therefore, you

should avoid making the paper personal and subjective, and you should
avoid using informal language. Do not use such words as I, me, my, mine,
we, and our. Do not state opinions without supporting them with facts. Do
not use slang, informal language, or contractions.
Assembling the Draft A rough draft is just that—it is rough, or unfinished.
As you draft, do not worry about matters that you can take care of later, such
as details of spelling, grammar, usage, and mechanics. Instead, concentrate
on getting your ideas down in an order that makes sense.
Use an outline as a guide. Explore each main point, supporting the idea with
evidence from your notes.
The Draft as a Work in Progress

As you write, you may occasionally discover gaps in the information that you have
gathered. In other words, you may find that you do not have in your notes all the
information you need to make some point. When this occurs, you can stop and look for the
information, or you can simply make a note to yourself to find the information later on.
Either approach works well.

The need to fill gaps is one proof that drafting is still discovery time. In addition to
discovering gaps to be filled, you may discover better ways to organize parts of the report,
ideas in your source materials that conflict, or parts of your topic that you have not explored.
You may even find a whole new approach to your topic, one, more interesting or workable
than the one you have taken. Remain open to the discoveries that occur as your draft. Be
willing to return, if necessary, to earlier stages of the writing process to do more research, to
rethink your controlling purpose, or to change your outline.
Using Graphic Aids

As you draft, think about using tables, maps, charts, diagrams, and other graphic aids to
present a lot of information in a little space. If you use graphic aid, or ifs use information
from a source to create a graphic aid, then from a source you must credit the source.

Writing the Introduction

The introduction of a research report should accomplish two purposes:

1.It should grab reader’s attention

2.It should present the report’s main idea or thesis statement
It should define key terms and provide necessary background information
Writing the Conclusion

As an introduction, a conclusion is usually or two paragraphs long. The most

common way to conclude a research report is to restate the main idea and your main
argument in support of the idea. In addition, you may wish to use the conclusion to tie up
loose ends left in the body of your paper, to explain what accepting your thesis statement
might mean, to ask readers to take some action, to explain the importance or value of
what they have learned from the report, or to make predictions about the future. The
conclusion is an opportunity to be imaginative. Almost anything is acceptable as long as it
leaves readers satisfied that you have covered the subject well.
List of References

This component demonstrates the extension of your learning as a researcher and

allows you to share information with your readers. Conversely, it enables your readers to
identify the influences of your Ideas and empowers them to verify the information you
share.

Referencing styles

There are several different styles of referencing:

§APA
§MIA
§Oxford
§Harvard
§Chicago
 BOOK REVIEW
As you read the book you have chosen, remember that you will be writing
about it later. Keep nearby a sheet of paper or small notebook divided into
three sections. Label the columns plot, setting and main character. Fill in the
sections with notes about the three labels. Include page numbers next to
important notes. The page numbers will help you if you need to go back and
re-read some sections of the book.
The Prewriting Process Once you have found several possible
choices for your book review, preview each one to make your final
decision. You may preview the books by following these steps:

Step 1. Look at the cover. Is there something that makes you

interested in the book?
Step 2. Read the book jacket summary. What does the summary tell
you?
Step 3. Skim some pages. D6 you like the way the characters are
shown? Do you see any interesting action taking place?
Step 4. Consider what you have found. Does the book look
interesting? Do you want to know more about the characters?
Planning a Book Report or Review (Little, 2009)

Take brief notes as you read the material you will respond to. You
might note your favorite parts, parts that puzzle you, and parts that
you disagree with. Afterward, ask yourself questions to help you
analyze and evaluate the material:
·Whose point of view does the work presently? Which parts reveal
the point of view?
·What might the work’s purpose be? Which parts reveal the
purpose? What is the author’s thesis?
·What are the most and least effective aspects of the work?
·What might readers and reviewers learn from the work?
Think about the Purpose and Audience

You have read your book and you are ready to tell people
what you think. Before you begin, think about:
·The purpose of your book review
·The people who will be reading it (your audience)
Your purpose for writing a book review will be closely linked to
your audience and to their purpose for reading the review.
Gather and Organize Details

You get the idea. If you want to read the book you have chosen, you need
to say more about it than simply. “It’s good.” You need to give him a
summary of the book. A summary of a piece of writing includes only the
key ideas of the piece. When you summarize a novel, you will briefly
retell the important events. The notes that you took while you read your
novel will help you write your summary.
There is more to the story. If the story were plot alone, it would not be
much fun to read. Readers will be more interested in plot events if they
know something about the people and the places involved. When you
write a summary, include a description of the characters and the setting.
Writing a Book Review

• Introduction. In your first paragraph, identify the material that you are
responding to Name the author and date of publication. To help your
readers, provide a summary or brief description of the work. You
might also state your thesis in your opening paragraph.
• Body. Devote at least a paragraph to each main point. Support each
point with details from your planning notes—including your own
responses—and with examples from the work itself.
• Conclusion. If you haven't started your thesis in the first paragraph,
do so in the conclusion. Sum up your judgment of the work's main
ideas and the way they are presented.
 CONCEPT PAPER

As Dadufalza (1996) describes a concept paper is a text that defines an idea or concept and explains its
essence in order to clarify the “whatness” of the idea. Normally, a concept paper starts with a definition
which can be categorized to be either formal or informal. Informal definition, the pattern
“term+genus+differentia/e” is being followed. The term is the concept or idea being elucidated or
clarified while genus is the classification of the term. However, differentia or differentiae are the features
that make the term different or distinct from among its classification.
Example:
·Engineering is the application of science and mathematics by which the
properties of matter and the sources of energy in nature are made useful to
people.

§Here, “engineering” is the term, “application of science and mathematics” is

the genus and “by which the properties of matter and the sources of energy in
nature are made useful to people” is the differentia/e.

Lopus is a chronic autoimmune disease in which the body’s immune system

becomes hyperactive and attacks normal, healthy tissues manifested through
symptoms of inflammation or swelling, damage to joints, skin, kidneys, blood,
heart, and lungs.

*In writing a concept paper a single sentence formal definition would not be enough to clarify
and elucidate an idea or concept. This means amplified or extended definition is necessary.
 POSITION PAPER
There may have been instances when we were required to explain a variety of
positions on an issue, possibly including those in favor of it, those against it, and
those with various views in between. The patterns used for expository papers
(narration, description, explication, etc.,) can be expanded for a position paper. The
objective of a position paper is to take a stand on the issue, organize the materials
and notes, and write a paper that is convincing to your reading to your reading
audience.
PARTS OF CLASSICAL ORGANIZATION OF ARGUMENTS

1.Introduction. Make the subject and purpose clear at the start.

Also, include information that will interest the audience so that
they will want to keep reading.
2.Statement of proposition and division. State claim at or near the
end of the introduction, name the major sections of the paper so
that it is easier for readers to follow along.
3.Narration. Provide background about the subject and the events
that have led to the controversy. Indicate why the subject is
important. Offer reasons for an interest in the subject and cite
qualifications for writing about it.
PARTS OF CLASSICAL ORGANIZATION OF ARGUMENTS

4 Proof. Establish reasons and evidence that are acceptable to the

audience to prove the proposition or claim.

5 Refutation. Refute opposing positions. It may be placed after

the proof, before the proof, or at various points among the items
of proof.

6.Conclusion. Emphasize the important point and remind the

audience of the other important points.
USE ORGANIZATIONAL PATTERNS TO HELP YOU THINK
AND ORGANIZE

Organizational patterns represent distinct ways to think about the

parts of your reaction paper, the order in which you place them,
the relationships among the ideas and parts. They can be
incorporated into the overall structure of the classical model,
particularly in the proof section (body) of the paper. Use the
patterns alone or in combinations accompanied by an
introduction and a conclusion. Use these formats both to help you
think about your ideas as well to organize them.
Claim with Reasons (or Reasons Followed by Claim)

This pattern takes the following form:

Statement of claim
·Reason 1
·Reason 2
·Reason 3, and so forth
 Set this pattern up by writing the claim, following it with the word
because, and listing some reasons. Or list some reasons, follow them
with the word therefore, and write the claim. For example, you may
present the claim that a national health care program is essential to a
society, which is followed by reasons: the unemployed have no
insurance, many employed people have no insurance, the elderly cannot
afford medicine, and many children do not receive adequate health care.
The reasons may be distinct and different from one another and set
up separate topics in your paper. Support all reasons with facts,
examples, and opinions. You can utilize transitional phrases such as one
reason, a related reason, and a final reason to emphasize your reasons
and make them stand out in your paper.
 Cause and Effect (or Effect and Cause). The cause and effect
pattern may be used to identity one or more causes followed by one or
more effects or results. Or you may reverse this sequence and describe
effects first and then the cause or causes. For example, the causes of
water pollution might be followed by its effects on both humans and
animals. You can use obvious transitions to clarify cause and effect, such
as "What are the results? Here are some of them," or simply the words
cause, effect, and result.
 Chronology or Narrative.

Material arranged chronologically is explained as it occurs in time. This

pattern may be used to establish what happened for an argument of fact.
For example, you may want to give a history of childhood traumas to
account for an individual's current criminal behavior. Or you may want
to tell a story to develop one or more points in your argument. Use
transitional words such as then, next, and finally to make the parts of the
chronology clear.
 Deduction.

Recall that deductive reasoning involves reasoning from a

generalization, applying n to cases or examples, and drawing a
conclusion. For instance, you may generalize that the open land in South
Africa is becoming overgrazed; follow chit assertion with examples of
erosion, threatened wildlife, and other environmental harms; and
conclude that the government mug restricts grazing to designated areas.
The conclusion is the claim. You can use such transitional phrases as for
instance, for example, and to clarify to set your examples off faint out
the rest of the argument Ilk and therefore, thus, consequently, or in
conclusion to lead into your claim.
 Deduction.

Recall that deductive reasoning involves reasoning from a

generalization, applying n to cases or examples, and drawing a
conclusion. For instance, you may generalize that the open land in South
Africa is becoming overgrazed; follow chit assertion with examples of
erosion, threatened wildlife, and other environmental harms; and
conclude that the government mug restricts grazing to designated areas.
The conclusion is the claim. You can use such transitional phrases as for
instance, for example, and to clarify to set your examples off faint out
the rest of the argument Ilk and therefore, thus, consequently, or in
conclusion to lead into your claim.
INDUCTION

The inductive pattern involves citing one or more examples and then
marking the “inductive leap” to the conclusion. For instance, a number
of examples of illegal settlers who consume unwarranted social services
lead some people to conclude that they should be sent back to their own
hometowns. Other people, however, may claim that they should be
relocated to low-payment housing areas. No matter which claim or
conclusion is chosen, it can be stated at the beginning or at the end of the
paper. The only requirement is that it be based on the examples.
Compare and Contrast

This pattern is particularly useful in definition arguments and in other

arguments that show how a subject is like or unlike similar subjects. It is
also often used to demonstrate a variety of similarities or differences.
For example, the claim is made that drug abuse is a medical problem
instead of a criminal justice problem. The proof consists of literal
analogies that compare drug abuse to AIDS, cancer, and heart disease to
redefine it as a medical term. The transition words by contrast, in
comparison, while, some, and others are sometimes used to clarify ideas
in this pattern.
THANK
YOU !