Introduction to Materials

Science and
Engineering
Learning Objectives :
Upon completion of this chapter, the student
should be able to:
• List six different property classifications
of materials that determine their applicability.
• Cite the four components that are involved in the
design, production, and utilization of materials.
• Cite three criteria that are important in
the selection process.
 Materials Science and Engineering
Materials Science – investigating relationships
that exist between the structure and properties of
materials.
Materials Engineering – is, on the basis of these
structure-property correlations, designing or
engineering the structure of a material to produce
a pre-determined set of properties
Materials in day to day life
 Materials: The Milestones of Progress
• Development and advancement of Human
societies- closely related with materials
• Civilizations have been named based on the level of
their materials development – Stone age, Bronze age etc.
 Quest for newer materials:
The driving force for the progress- stone age to modern
age

Quest for more advanced materials to meet the growing

needs as the civilization progressed.
 Stone age
Stone age – People living in caves and hunting
with stone-made weapons
200,000 BC Discovery of fire – Said to be the most significant
discovery in human civilization. However, till the time
the fire was controlled to contain and utilize the heat,
it was not significant.
Containing the fire – Was not possible without
materials. Started with clay (a ceramic material) pots
and now we have all kinds of means to control and
contain fire.
 Introduction of metals
First metals to be discovered – Copper and Gold

Material processing - Annealing and Shaping. Throwing

copper into camp fire and hammering in early days

Melting and casting of metals. Melting of Gold to give

it different shapes

Reduction of copper from its ore – Nile Valley

The dawn of metallurgy.
Perhaps discovered by chance much before by
early potters
 Discovery of Alloy - Metal
Combinations
The discovery of alloy – combination
of metals

Mixing of Tin with Copper – Bronze

Copper ore invariably contains some Tin – Mixing of
different ores having different Tin content produced
the first Bronzes.
 Iron and Steel – Building blocks of human
civilizationIron wheels – discovery of iron making.
Revolution in warfare and cultivation

Invention of Blast furnace – Production of pig

iron from ores
Sir Henry Bessemer (1813-1898)
Bessemer steel making patent
20th Century Many other steel making processes
 Early 20th Century – The goldenera

Hall process- Electrochemical process for

extraction of Aluminium from Alumina
(Al2O3)
1890 - 1910 AD
Revolutio in Transportation –
n of automobiles and
Discovery Aero
plane
Process
Introduction for making Nylon
of plastics
–
The Electronic
Revolution
Zone refining – A
metallurgical process
to
produce ultra pure Si

Ultra pure Si through zone refining – Si

chip, the heart of electronics. Smaller and
smaller Si wafers - Miniaturization
 Superconductors

High temperature ceramic MRI Machine, Brain Scan

superconductors – Advancement in
Medical science
Magnetic Levitation: Maglevtrain
:– 300 – 500 kmph
Why do we need to study Materials Science
and
Engineering?
 Processing/Structure/Properties/Performance
Correlations
• Structure of a material usually relates to the
arrangement of its internal components which
can be further classified into four categories
described in the next section.
• A property is a material trait in terms of the kind
and magnitude of response to a specific imposed
stimulus.
 Structur
e with the un-aided eye
•Macroscopic – viewable
•Microscopic – groups of atoms that
are normally agglomerated together
•Atomic – organization of atoms or molecules
• Sub atomic – electrons and nuclei
(protons and neutrons)
 In addition to structure and properties,
two other important components are involved
in the science and engineering of materials –
namely, processing and performance. With
regard to the relationships of these four
components, the structure of a material will
depend on how it is processed. Furthermore,
a materials performance will be a function of
its properties.
Processing

Structure

Properties

Performance
Classification of Materials
1.) Metals
Materials in this group are composed of one
or more metallic elements and often also
nonmetallic elements. Atoms in metals and their
alloys are arranged in a very orderly manner, and
in comparison to the ceramics and polymers, are
relatively dense.
2.) Ceramics
Ceramics are compounds between metallic
and nonmetallic elements; they are most
frequently oxides, nitrides and carbides. For
example, common ceramic materials include
aluminum oxide, silicone dioxide, silicon carbide,
etc. Ceramic materials are more resistant to high
temperatures and harsh environments than
metals and polymers.
3.) Polymers
Polymers include the familiar plastic and
rubber materials. Many of them are organic
compounds that are chemically based on carbon,
hydrogen and other nonmetallic elements. These
materials typically have low densities, whereas
their mechanical characteristics are generally
dissimilar to the metallic and ceramic materials –
they are not as stiff nor as strong as these other
material types.
4.) Composites
A composite is composed of two or more
materials, which come from metals, ceramics and
polymers. The design goal of a composite is to
achieve a combination of properties that is not
displayed by any single material, and also to
incorporate the best characteristics of each of the
component materials.
5.) Advanced Materials
Materials that are utilized in high-technology
applications are termed as advanced materials.
These materials are typically traditional materials
whose properties have been enhanced, and also
newly developed, high-performance materials.
These type of materials is further classified into
four kinds, namely, semiconductors, biomaterials,
smart materials and nanomaterials.
a.) Semiconductors
Have electrical properties that are
intermediate between the electrical conductors
(metals and alloys) and insulators (ceramics and
polymers)
b.) Biomaterials
Biomaterials are employed in components
implanted into the human body to replace
diseased or damaged body parts.
c.) Smart Materials
The adjective “smart” implies that these
materials are able to sense changes in their
environment and then respond to these changes
in predetermined manners.
d.) Nanomaterials
Nanomaterials may be one of the four basic
materials, however, unlike those other materials,
they are not distinguished on the basis of their
chemistry, but rather, size.
Summary:
• One aspect of materials science is the
investigation of relationships that exist between
the structures and properties of materials. By
structure we mean how some internal
component(s) of the materials is (are) arranged.
In terms of (and with increasing) dimensionality,
structural elements include subatomic, atomic
microscopic, and macroscopic.
• On the basis of chemistry and atomic structure,
materials are classified into three general
categories: metals (metallic elements), ceramics
(compounds between metallic and nonmetallic
elements), and polymers (compounds composed
of carbon, hydrogen, and other nonmetallic
elements.) In addition, composites are composed
of at least two different material types.
• Another materials category is the advanced materials
that are used in high-tech applications. These include
semiconductors (having electrical conductivities
intermediate between conductors and insulators),
biomaterials (which must be compatible with body
tissues), smart materials (those that sense and
respond to changes in their environments in
predetermined manners), and nanomaterials (those
that have structural features on the order of a
nanometer, some of which may be designed on the
atomic/molecular level)
Good, better, best. Never let it rest. Until your good is better and your better is best.
- St. Jerome
-end-
Objective:
1. To know about the most common elements used in Materials
Science and Engineering.
2. To gain understanding about the real life usage
and applications of different elements.
3. Understand the science behind an element and how
it is utilized with other elements to enhance its properties.
Who invented it?
The periodic table was proposed by Russian chemist
Dmitri Mendeleev in 1869. Using the table, Mendeleev was
able to accurately predict the properties of many elements
before they were actually discovered.
Element Abbreviations
Each element has its own name and abbreviation in the
periodic table. Some of the abbreviations are easy to
remember, like H for hydrogen. Some are a bit harder like Fe
for iron or Au for gold. For gold the "Au" comes from the
Latin word for gold "aurum".
Fun facts about the Periodic Table
• Carbon is unique in that it is known to form up to 10 million
different compounds. Carbon is important to the existence of
life.
• Francium is the rarest element on earth. There are probably
no more than a few ounces of it on earth at any given time.
• The only letter not in the periodic table is the letter J.
• The country Argentina is named after the element silver
(symbol Ag) which is argentum in Latin.
• Although there is helium on Earth, it was first discovered by
observing the sun.
 A soft, silvery metal that
burns in air and reacts with
water. Strontium is best
known for the brilliant reds
its salts give to fireworks and
flares. It is also used
in producing ferrite magnets
and refining zinc. Modern
'glow-in-the-dark' paints and
plastics
contain strontium
aluminate.
 Sodium is a chemical
element with the symbol
Na (from Latin natrium). It
is a soft, silvery-white,
highly reactive metal.
Sodium is the sixth most
. common element on Earth,
and makes up 2.6% of the
Earth’s crust. The most
common compound is
sodium chloride.
 Potassium is the seventh
most abundant element on
Earth with
the symbol K (from Neo-
Latin kalium). Potassium is a
silvery-white metal that is soft
enough to be cut with a knife
with little force.
It was first isolated by Sir
Humphry Davy
in 1807. Potassium was the first
elemental metal to be found
through electrolysis. It makes
up roughly 1.5% by mass of the
Earth's crust.
 The largest use of potassium is potassium chloride
(KCl) which is used to make fertilizers. This is because
potassium is important for plant growth. Industrial
applications for potassium include soaps, detergents,
gold mining, dyes, glass production, gunpowder, and
batteries.
Potassium also plays a vital role in our bodies. It is
used in muscle contraction, fluid and pH balance, bone
health, and helps to prevent kidney stones. It is about the
eighth most abundant element in the human body by
weight.
 Manganese is a very hard,
brittle, gray-white transition
metal that is naturally found in
a variety of minerals, but never
on its own. Manganese is one of
the most common elements in
Earth's crust and is widely
distributed across the planet's
surface.
Manganese is vital to
human and animal life in
metabolic functions. Many alloys
containing manganese are used
in steel production, glass
making, and even to make the
aluminum in soda cans thinner
and stronger.
 Calcium is the most
abundant of the metallic
elements in the human
body. The average adult
body contains about 1 kg or
2 lb of calcium, 99% of
which is in the bones and
teeth. Only oxygen, carbon,
hydrogen and nitrogen are
more abundant in our
bodies than calcium.
 Scientists estimate that
Hydrogen makes up over 90
percent of all the atoms in
the universe. It is the only
element that can exist
without neutrons.
Hydrogen
liquidbecomes
at a very low
temperature and
high pressure. It is used to
ammonia
make for fertilizers,
refining metals, and
methanol for making
artificial material like
plastics.
 At room temperature
lithium is a soft metal that is
silvery-white in color. It is the
least dense of the solid
elements and is the lightest of
all the metals.
Lithium is used in a
variety of applications, the
one you are most familiar
with is lithium batteries.
Around 27% of lithium used
for industry is used in
batteries. Another major
application is in the
manufacture of ceramics and
glass.
 Francium is the second
rarest element in the Earth's
crust next to astatine. It is a
heavy, unstable, radioactive
metal with a maximum life
of only 22 minute and turn
into astatine, radon, or
radium.
Francium has been
used in the field of research,
chemistry and also in the
atomic structure. It is used
for diagnostics for curing
cancers.
 One of titanium's most valuable
qualities is its high strength-to-weight
ratio. This means it is both very strong,
but also very light. It is twice as
strong as aluminum, but only
weighs 60% more. It is also
as strong as steel, but weighs

much
less. Titanium is
used to alloy with different
metals such
as iron, aluminum, and
manganese where it helps
to produce
strong and lightweight
alloys for use in spacecraft, naval
ships, missiles, and as
 Chromium is only found
rarely as a free element in nature.
It is mostly found in ores scattered
throughout the Earth's crust
where it is about the twenty-fourth
most abundant element.
Chromium is often mixed
with other metals to make alloys.
One of the most important
chromium alloys is produced
when chromium is mixed with
steel to make stainless steel.
Stainless steel is strong and
resistant to corrosion. Chromium
is also used to produce superalloys
with nickel that are used in jet
engines.
 Molybdenum is a silvery-
white metal that is ductile and
highly resistant to corrosion. It
has one of the highest melting
points of all pure elements —
only the elements tantalum
and tungsten have higher
meltingpoints.
Molybdenum disulfide
is used as a lubricant
Other uses
additive.
for molybdenum
include catalysts forthe
industry, inks for circuit
petroleum
boards, pigments and
electrodes.
 Tungsten is known as one
of the toughest things found in
nature. It is super dense and
almost impossible to melt. Pure
tungsten is a silver-white metal
and when made into a fine
powder can be combustible and
can spontaneously ignite.
Tungsten has the highest
melting point of any
metal. Tungsten is used in
filaments in incandescent light
bulbs, it is also used in electric
contacts and arc-welding
electrodes. Tungsten is used in
alloys, such as steel, to which it
imparts great strength.
 One of the main uses of
magnesium metal is in metal alloys.
This is because it is both strong and
light. It is often mixed with
aluminum, zinc, manganese, silicon,
and copper to make strong and light
alloys for use as automobile parts,
aircraft components, and missiles.
Magnesium metal is also used
in electronic components. Its light
weight and good electrical properties
make it a good element for use in
cameras, mobile phones,
computers, laptop and other
electronic components.
handheld
 The
majority of
the vanadium used by
industry is as an alloy to
improve the strength of steel.
Vanadium steel is used to
manufacture automobile
components as well as high end
bicycle frames. Vanadium is
also alloyedwith
aluminum and titanium to
create a very strong alloy
that is used for
special applications
such as
dental implants
andjet engines.
Other applications
 Before the era of flat-screen
televisions, TV sets contained
large cathode ray tubes, which
were large glass tubes that
projected images on the screen.
Yttrium oxide, doped with the
element europium, provided the
red color on millions of color-
television sets.
Yttrium is also added to
metal alloys to help improve
resistance to corrosion and
oxidation.
• Technetium was the first
element to be produced artificially.
Technetium is a remarkable
corrosion inhibitor for steel. Mild
carbon steels may be protected by
as little as 55 ppm of KTcO4 in
aerated distilled water at
temperatures up to 250 C (482 F).
This corrosion protection is limited
to closed systems, since technetium
is radioactive and must be
confined. It is also an excellent
superconductor at 11K (-439.9 F / -
262.1 C) and below.
 Iron is used more than any
other metal for producing metal
alloys. The most important iron
alloys include cast iron, pig iron,
wrought iron, and steel. There
are various alloys of steel, but
they all contain iron as the main
metal. Iron also plays an
important role in biology. It is
important in plants for
photosynthesis. In the human
body iron is a major component
of the blood which carries oxygen
throughout the body from the
lungs.
 Copper is used mostly in its
metal form. About 60% of the
copper produced is used for
electrical wiring and cable. Copper
is an excellent material for wiring
because of its electrical
conductivity, ductility, corrosion
resistance, low thermal expansion,
and tensile
strength. Copperis also
used roofing,
plumbing, in industrial
machinery, integrated circuits
(computer chips), cookware, coins,
and electric motors. Around 5% of
copper is used to make metal
alloys such as brass (mixed with
zinc) and bronze (mixed with tin).
 Understandard
conditions silver is a soft
metal that has a shiny
metallic finish. It is very
ductile (meaning it can be
pulled into a wire) and
malleable (meaning it can be
hammered into a flat sheet).
Silver has the
highest
conductivity of electrical
all the
elements as well as the
highest thermal conductivity
of the metals. It is also very
reflective.
 Silver hasbeen used since ancient times to
make jewelry and silverware. Today, standard silver is an alloy
of 92.5% silver and 7.5% copper
called sterling silver. Another ancient use of
silver was to make coins. Silver has been used as money for
thousands of years. Today, few coins are still made from
silver because of its high cost.
Silver is used in the electronics industry because of
its excellent electrical conductivity. It is mostly
used in high end applications where the cheaper metal copper
can't do the job. It is also used in long
life batteries. Other applications for silver include
mirrors, dental fillings,
 Under standard
conditions gold is a shiny
yellow metal. It is very dense
and heavy, but also fairly soft.
Gold is the most malleable
of the metals meaning that it
can be pounded into a very
thin sheet. It is also one of
the most ductile metals and
can be easily stretched into
a long wire. Gold is
more than just a beautiful
metal. It is an
excellent conductor
of electricity and heat. It is
also one ofthe most
resistant metals to corrosion
and rust when exposed to air
 When gold is used as jewelry or for coins, it is generally
not pure gold. Pure gold is called 24 karat gold and it is very
soft. Generally gold is alloyed with other metals such as
copper or silver in order to make it harder and more
durable.
Gold is used a lot in the electronics industry because of
its good electrical conductivity and resistance to corrosion.
Many electrical contacts and connectors are plated with gold
for protection and reliability. Other
applications for gold include heat shielding, dental
work, cancer treatment, and decoration such as gold
thread and gold plating.
 Being a
precious metal,
platinum is
often used
as currency and as an
investment. It is alsoused
in coins and to
make jewelry
such as
rings, earrings,
and
watches. Despite
being a popular
metal for jewelry,
platinum is most often
used as a catalyst in chemical
reactions. It is used as a catalyst
for the automobile and
petroleum
 Under standard conditions
mercury is a shiny, heavy, silvery
liquid. It is the only metal that is
liquid at room temperature. It will
evaporate into the air at room
temperature. Mercury is very
poisonous and can be absorbed by
humans through the air, skin, or by
eating food with mercury. Too
much mercury can kill a person.
It is used in measuring
instruments such as thermometers
and barometers. A major
application today is fluorescent
lamps and mercury vapor lamps.
 More than half of all zinc
that is mined is used for
galvanizing other metals such as
steel and iron. Galvanizing is
when these other metals are
coated with a thin coating of zinc
in order to prevent them from
corroding or rusting.
Zinc is also used to form
alloys with other metals. Brass, an
alloy made with copper and zinc,
has been used since ancient times.
Other alloys include nickel silver,
zinc aluminum, and cadmium
zinc telluride. They are used for a
variety of applications including
pipe organs, die-casting for auto
parts, and sensing devices.
 The majority of nickel that
is mined today is used to make
nickel steels and alloys. Nickel
steels, such as stainless steel, are
strong and corrosion resistant.
Nickel is often combined with
iron and other metals to make
strong magnets.
Other applications for
nickel include batteries, coins,
guitar strings, and armor plate.
Many nickel based batteries are
rechargeable like the NiCad
(nickel cadmium) battery and
the NiMH (nickel-metal hydride)
battery.
 Because of its
abundance, low cost, and
useful qualities, aluminum
is used in thousands of
products. It is often used as
a metal because of its light
weight.
This element is the
second-most abundant
metallic element in Earth's
crust after silicon. It's used
in soda cans and other
packaging, in aircraft and
automobiles.
 Carbon is used in some
way in most every industry
in the world. It is used for
fuel in the form of coal,
methane gas, and crude oil
(which is used to make
gasoline). It is used to make
all sorts of materials
including plastics and alloys
such as steel (a combination
of carbon and iron). It is
even used to make black ink
for printers and painting.
 The primary industrial use of
nitrogen is to make ammonia.
The process by which nitrogen is
used to make
ammonia is called
the Haber process where nitrogen
and hydrogen are combined to
make NH3 (ammonia). Ammonia
is then used to create
fertilizers, nitric acid,
and
explosives. Some
applications for
nitrogen gas
include the
preservation of fresh
foods, the manufacturing
 The majority of tin
today is used to make
solder. Solder is a mixture
of tin and lead that is used
to join pipes and to make
electronic circuits.
Tin is also used as a
plating to protect other
metals such as lead, zinc,
and steel from corrosion.
Tin cans are actually steel
cans covered with a plating
of tin.
 The majority of lead
produced today is used in lead-
acid batteries. These types of
batteries are used in cars because
of their low cost and high power.
Because lead is resistant to
corrosion, has such a high density,
and is relatively inexpensive, it is
used in water applications such as
weights for scuba divers and
ballasts for sailboats.
Other applications that use
lead include roofing material,
electrolysis, statues, solder for
electronics, and ammunition.
 The primary use of
phosphorus in industry is in
the manufacture of fertilizers.
This is because phosphorus is
a key element in the growth of
plants. Red phosphorus is
used in making pesticides
and safety matches.
Other applications for
phosphorus include baking
powder, the alloy phosphor
bronze, flame retardants,
incendiary bombs, and LEDs
(light emitting diodes).
 Silicon is used in a
variety of applications and
materials. Most applications
of silicon use silicate
minerals. These include glass
(made from sand), ceramics
(made from clay), and
abrasives. Silicates are also
used to make Portland
cement which is used to
make concrete and stucco.
 Under standard conditions silicon is a solid. In its amorphous
(random) form it looks like a brown powder. In its crystalline form
it is a silvery-gray metallic looking material that is brittle and
strong.
Silicon is considered a semiconductor, meaning that it has
electronic conductivity between that of an insulator and a
conductor. Its conductivity increases with temperature. This
property makes silicon a valuable element in electronics.
Siliconis alsoused to make synthetic
compounds called silicones. Silicones are used to
make lubricants, greases,rubber materials,
waterproofing materials, and caulks.
Pure silicon is used in the manufacture of semiconductor
chips
for electronics. These chips form the brains of today's electronics
including computers, televisions, video game consoles, and mobile
phones.
 Most of the boron that is
mined is eventually refined into
boric acid or borax. Boric acid
is used in a number of
applications including
insecticides, flame retardants,
antiseptics, and to create other
compounds. Borax is a
powdered material used in
detergents, cosmetics,
enamel glazes. and
Boron is used in the
manufacture of glass and
ceramics. It produces high end
cookware materials used in
brands such as Duran and
Pyrex. It also helps to make
glassware for science labs.
 Oxygen is used by animals
and plants in the respiration
(breathing) process. Tanks of
oxygen are used in medicine to
treat people with breathing
problems. They are also used as
life support for astronauts and
scuba divers.
The majority of the oxygen
used in industry is used in the
manufacturing of steel. Other
applications include making
new compounds such as plastics
and creating a very hot flame
for welding. Liquid oxygen is
combined with liquid hydrogen
to make rocket fuel.
 Sulfur and its compounds
have a number of industrial
applications. The majority of
sulfur is used to make the
chemical sulfuric acid. Sulfuric
acid is the top chemical used by
the world's industry. It is used to
make car batteries, fertilizer,
refine oil, process water, and to
extract minerals.
Other applications for
sulfur based chemicals include
the vulcanization of rubber,
bleaching paper, and making
products such as cement,
detergents, pesticides. and
gunpowder
 One of the most popular
applications of fluorine is for
refrigerant gases. For many years
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) were
used for freezers and air
conditioners.
Another application is
fluoride. Fluoride is a reduced form
of fluorine when bonded to another
element. Fluoride is helpful in
preventing tooth decay and is used
in tap water and toothpaste.
Other applications that use
fluorine include high temperature
plastics such as Teflon, the smelting
of iron and metal production,
pharmaceuticals, etching glass, and
in processing nuclear fuel.
 Iodine has a number of uses. It
is used in sanitation systems and as
an antiseptic to kill germs and
bacteria. It is also used in its
radioactive form to enable doctors to
diagnose medical issues and diseases.
Iodine is also an essential
element for life. It plays an important
role in the thyroid gland that controls
the body's growth rate. Too little
iodine can cause a person to have
stunted growth and slower cognitive
development (less intelligent). To
make sure that people get enough
iodine, it is often added to salt in what
is called iodized salt.
 Helium is used in balloons
and airships to make them
float. It is not as light at
hydrogen, but is a much safer
gas as hydrogen is very
flammable.
The largest industrial user
of helium gas is MRI scanners
which use the gas to keep the
superconducting magnets cool.
Other applications include
silicon wafers for electronics
and as a protective gas for arc
welding.
 Neon is used in lighting
signs that are often called
"neon" signs. However, neon is
only used to produce a reddish
orange glow. Other gases are
used to create other colors even
though they are still called neon
signs.
Other applications that use
neon include lasers, television
tubes, and vacuum tubes. The
liquid form of neon is used for
refrigeration and is considered
a more effective refrigerant
than liquid helium.
 Because argon is the most
abundant and cheapest of the
noble gases, it is often used when
an inert gas is needed. One of the
main applications for argon is for
the gas inside incandescent
lighting. Because argon won't
react with the filament used by
light bulbs even at high
temperatures, it helps the
filament to last longer and keeps
the glass of the bulb from
blackening.
Argon is also used for
welding, medical instruments,
preserving wine, thermal
insulation in windows, and in
microelectronics.
 It is used in making a variety of
products including insecticides,
pharmaceuticals, cleaning products,
textiles, and plastics.
You have probably heard people
mention that chlorine is used in
pools. Chlorine is used in pools to
keep it clean and safe by killing
bacteria, germs, and algae. It is also
used in drinking water to
kill bacteria so we don't get sick when
we drink it. Because it kills germs,
chlorine is also used in disinfectants
and is the basis for most bleaches.
 “You know more than you think you do”

-end-

References: Askeland, Donald and Fulay, Pradeep, Essentials of

Materials Science and Engineering, 2nd Edition, Cengage Learning, 2009
https:// www. EncyclopediaBritannica.com
https://www.livescience.com/ https://
www.ducksters.com/
Objective:
1. Describe the fundamental particles of matter.
2. Gain understanding about chemical bonding.
3. Know how compounds are named.
Fundamental
Concepts
Each atom consists of a very small nucleus composed
of protons and neutrons, which is encircled by moving
electrons. Both electrons and protons are electrically
charged, the charged magnitude being 1.60 x 10-19 C,
which is in sign for electrons and positive for protons;
neutrons are electrically neutral. Masses for these sub-
atomic particles are infinitesimally small; protons and
neutrons have approximately the same mass 1.67 x 10-27 kg
, which is significantly larger that of an electron which
is 9.11 x 10-31 kg .
The Atom
The atom is the basic building block for all
matter in the universe. Atoms are extremely small
and are made up of a few even smaller particles.
The basic particles that make up an atom are
electrons, protons, and neutrons. Atoms fit together
with other atoms to make up matter. It takes a lot of
atoms to make up anything. There are so many
atoms in a single human body we won't even try to
write the number here.
 There are different kinds of atoms based on the
number of electrons, protons, and neutrons each
atom contains. Each different kind of atom makes
up an element. There are 92 natural elements and
up to 118 when you count in man-made elements.
At the center of the atom is the nucleus. The
nucleus is made up of the protons and neutrons.
The electrons spin in orbits around the outside of
the nucleus.
The Proton
The proton is a positively charged particle that
is located at the center of the atom in the nucleus.
The hydrogen atom is unique in that it only has a
single proton and no neutron in its nucleus.
The Neutron
The neutron doesn't have any charge. The
number of neutrons affects the mass and the
radioactivity of the atom.
The Electron
The electron is a negatively charged particle that spins
around the outside of the nucleus. Electrons spin so fast
around the nucleus, scientists can never be 100% sure where
they are located, but scientists can make estimates of where
electrons should be. If there are the same number of
electrons and protons in an atom, then the atom is said to
have a neutral charge.
Electrons are attracted to the nucleus by the positive
charge of the protons. Electrons are much smaller than
neutrons and protons. About 1800 times smaller!
 REVIEW OF ATOMIC STRUCTURE

ATOMS = (PROTONS+NEUTRONS) + ELECTRONS

NUCLEUS BONDING
• Mass of an atom:
– Proton and Neutron: ~ 1.67 x 10-27 kg
– Electron: 9.11 x 10-31 kg
• Charge:
– Electrons and protons: (±) 1.60 x 10-19 C
– Neutrons are neutral
The atomic mass (A): total mass of protons + total mass of neutrons
Atomic weight ~ Atomic mass
# of protons are used to identify elements (Z)
# of neutron are used to identify isotopes ( e.g. 14C6 and 12C6 )
Isotopes are written as follows: AXZ , i.e. 1H1, 2H1, 3H1
Other (even smaller!) particles
Quark - The quark is a really small particle that makes up
neutrons and protons. Quarks are nearly impossible to
detect and it's only recently that scientists figured out they
existed. They were discovered in 1964 by Murray Gell-
Mann. There are 6 types of quarks: up, down, top, bottom,
charm, and strange.
Neutrino - Neutrinos are formed by nuclear reactions. They
are like electrons without any charge and are usually
travelling at the speed of light. Trillions and trillions of
neutrinos are emitted by the sun every second. Neutrinos
pass right through most solids including humans!
The Quark
A quark is a tiny particle which makes
up protons and neutrons. Atoms are made of protons,
neutrons and electrons. It was once thought that all three of
those were fundamental particles, which cannot be broken
up into anything smaller. After the invention of the particle
accelerator, it was discovered that electrons are
fundamental particles, but neutrons and protons are not.
Neutrons and protons are made up of quarks, which are
held together by gluons.
The Neutrino
Neutrinos are one of the fundamental particles which
make up the universe. They are also one of the least
understood.
Neutrinos are similar to the more familiar electron, with
one crucial difference: neutrinos do not carry electric charge.
Because neutrinos are electrically neutral, they are not
affected by the electromagnetic forces which act on electrons.
Neutrinos are affected only by a "weak" sub-atomic force of
much shorter range than electromagnetism, and are
therefore able to pass through great distances in matter
without being affected by it.
Molecules
Any time two atoms join together, they make a molecule.
All the stuff around you is made up of molecules. This
includes you! You are actually made up of trillions and
trillions of different types of molecules.
Compounds
When atoms of different types of elements join together,
they make molecules called compounds. Water consists of
compound molecules made up of 2 hydrogen atoms and 1
oxygen atom. This is why it's called H2O. Water will always
have 2 times the number of hydrogen atoms as oxygen
atoms.
Molecular Formula
There are only just over 100 types of atoms, but there
are millions and millions of different types of
substances out there. This is because they are all made up
of different types of molecules. Molecules arenot
only made up of different types of atoms but also
different ratios. Like in the water example above, a water
molecule has 2 hydrogen atoms and 1 oxygen
atom. This is written as H2O. Other
examples are carbon dioxide (C02),ammonia (NH3),
and sugar or glucose (C6H12O6). Some formulas
can get quite long and complex.
Let's look at the molecule for
sugar: C6 - 6 carbon atoms
H12 - 12 hydrogen atoms
O6 - 6 oxygen atom
It takes these specific atoms in these specific numbers to
make up a sugar molecule.
Fun Facts about Molecules
• Oxygen gas normally is the molecule O2, but it can also be
O3 which we call ozone.
• 66% of the mass of the human body is made up
of oxygen atoms.
• Molecules can have different shapes. Some are long spirals
while others may be pyramid shaped.
• Organic compounds are compounds that contain carbon.
• A perfect diamond is a single molecule made of carbon
atoms.
• DNA is a super long molecule that has information uniquely
describing every human being.
What is an isotope?
Isotopes are atoms that have the same number of
protons and electrons, but a different number of neutrons.
Changing the number of neutrons in an atom does not
change the element. Atoms of elements with different
numbers of neutrons are called "isotopes" of that element.
.
Naming Isotopes
Since neutrons have no electrical charge, changing
the number of neutrons does not affect the chemistry
of the element. It does, however, change the mass of
the element. Isotopes are identified by their mass,
which is the total number of protons and neutrons.
There are two ways that isotopes are generally
written. They both use the mass of the atom
where mass = (number of protons) + (number of
neutrons).
 The first way is to put themass as a
superscript before the symbol of the element:
•• 4He
14C

• 235U

The other way is to write out theelement and

write the mass after a dash next to the element's name:
• carbon-14
• helium-4
• uranium-238
Electron
Shells The electrons orbit around the nucleus of the atom. They
stay in layers called shells. Each shell can only contain a certain
number of electrons: the first layer can hold two electrons, the
second layer eight electrons, the third layer eighteen electrons,
etc.
Valence Electrons
The valence electrons are the number of electrons in an
outer shell of an atom that can participate
in forming chemical bonds
with other atoms. Atoms
with a relatively empty outer shell
willwant to give up electrons. For example, if an atom
has 1 electron out of a possible 8 in its outer shell, it will
want to give up that electron so its outer
shell is now full. Atoms with a relatively
full outer shell will want to gain electrons to fill up the outer
shell. For example, an atom with 6 of 8 electrons in its outer
shell will try to gain 2 electrons so
its outer shell is full.
Bonds
Molecules and compounds are held together by forces
called chemical bonds. There are two main types of bonds
that hold most compounds together: covalent bonds and
ionic bonds. Some compounds can have both types of
bonds.
Both main types of bonds involve electrons. Electrons
orbit atoms in shells. These shells want to be "full" of
electrons. When they aren't full, they will try to bond with
other atoms to get the right amount of electrons to fill
their shells.
 Covalent Bonds - Covalent bonds share
electrons between atoms. This happens when it
works out for atoms to share their electrons in
order to fill their outer shells.
Ionic Bonds - Ionic bonds form when one
electron is donated to another. This happens when
one atom gives up an electron to another in order
to form a balance and, therefore, a molecule or
compound.
Ionic Bonding
Ionic bonding occurs when one element donates an
electron (or electrons) to another so that both elements
will have a full outer shell.
Example:
Here is an example showing lithium (which has 3
electrons and 1 in the outer shell) and fluorine (which has
9 electrons and 7 in the outer shell) donating an electron
to form LiF or lithium fluoride. This is called an ionic
bond.
Covalent Bonding
In covalent bonding electrons are shared between atoms
rather than donated in order for the atoms of both elements
to gain full outer shells. Electrons are always shared in pairs.
Example:
An example of covalent bonding is the molecule of
carbon dioxide. In this example carbon has 4 of 8 electrons
in its outer shell and oxygen has 6 of eight electrons. By
combining two oxygen atoms with one carbon atom, the
atoms can share electrons such that each atom has a full
outer shell.
How Compounds are Named
Chemists have a specific way of naming
compounds. It is a standard method of naming
compounds that is used by scientists around the
world. The name is built from the elements and the
construction of the molecule.
Basic Naming Convention
First we'll cover how to name molecules with two
elements (binary compounds). The name of a
compound with two elements has two words.
 To get the first word we use the name of the first
element, or the element to the left of the formula. To get the
second word we use the name of the second element and
change the suffix to "ide" at the end of the word.
Some examples of adding the "ide":
O = oxygen = oxide
Cl = chlorine = chloride
Br = bromine =
bromide F = fluorine =
fluoride
Examples of binary compounds:
NaCl - sodium chloride
MgS - magnesium sulfide
InP = indium phosphide
What if there is more than one
atom? In cases where there is more than one atom (for example
there are two oxygen atoms in CO2) you add a prefix to the
start of the element based on the number of atoms. Here is a
list of the prefixes used:
** note: the "mono" prefix is not
used on the first element. For
example CO = carbon monoxide.
Examples:
CO2 = carbon dioxide
N2O = dinitrogen monoxide
CCL4 = carbon tetrachloride
S3N2 = trisulfur dinitride.
How is the order of the elements determined?
When there are two elements in a compound, which
element goes first in the name?
If the compound is made of a metal element and a
nonmetal element, then the metal element is first. If there are
two nonmetal elements, then the first name is the element to
the left side of the periodic table.
Examples:
• In a compound that contains iron and fluoride, the
metal (iron) would go first.
• In a compound that contains carbon and oxygen the element
to the left on the periodic table (carbon) would go first.
Naming Metal-Nonmetal Compounds
If one of the two compounds is a metal, then the
naming convention changes a bit. Using the stock
method, a roman numeral is used after the metal to
indicate which ion is using the charge.
Examples:
Ag2Cl2 = silver (II)
dichloride FeF3 = iron (III)
fluoride
Naming Polyatomic Compounds
Polyatomic compounds use a different suffix.
Most of them end in "-ate" or "-ite". There are a few
exceptions that end in "-ide" including hydroxide,
peroxide, and cyanide.
Examples:
Na2SO4 = sodium sulfate
Na3PO4 = sodium
phosphate Na2SO3 =
sodium sulfite
Naming Acids
Hydro acids use the prefix "hydro-" and the suffix "-
ic".
HF = hydrofluoric acid
HCl - hydrochloric acid
Oxoacids containing oxygen use the "-ous" or the "-ic"
suffix. The "-ic" suffix is used for the acid that has more
oxygen atoms.
H2SO4 = sulfuric
acid HNO2 = nitrous
acid HNO3 = nitric
References:
Askeland, Donald and Fulay, Pradeep, Essentials of Materials Science and
Engineering, 2nd Edition, Cengage Learning, 2009
https://helios.gsfc.nasa.gov/qa_gp_tp.html
http://www.astro.wisc.edu/~heroux/doms.html

http://www.ps.uci.edu/~superk/neutrino.html
http://www.astronoo.com/en/articles/subatomic-particles.html

https://ed.ted.com/
Structure of Crystalline
Solids
Objectives:
1. Understand the concepts about crystal structure.
2. Beable to identify the primary model of unit cell
and know the unit cell shapes in 3 dimensions.
3. Be able to define seven lattice system and 14 bravais lattice,
 Think of a diamond and some cotton candy. Do you
think these substances are alike?
 The (Common) Phases of Matter
Matter

Gases Liquids &

Liquid Crystals Solids

This doesn’t include Plasmas, or Bose-Einstein condensates but these three are
the “common” phases!!
 Gases
Gases have atoms or molecules that do not
bond to one another in a range of pressure,
temperature & volume. Also, these molecules have
no particular order & they move freely within a
container.
 Liquids
Similar to gases, liquids have no atomic
or molecular order & they assume the shape
of their containers.Applying low levels of
thermal energy can easily break the existing
weak bonds.
 Liquid
Liquid CrystalsCrystals
have mobile molecules, but a type of
long range order can exist. The molecules have a
permanent electric dipole. Applying an electric field rotates
the dipoles & establishes order within the collection of
molecules.
 Solid
Solids consist ofs atoms or molecules
undergoing thermal motion about their
equilibrium positions, which are at fixed points in
space. Solids can be crystalline, polycrystalline,
amorphous. Solids (at a given temperature,
or
pressure, volume) have stronger
bonds than liquids. So, Solids require more
interatomic
energy
to break the interatomic bonds than liquids.
 Elementary Crystallography
Solid Material
Types

Crystalline Polycrystalline Amorphous

Single
Crystals
 Solids
• Crystals: • Amorphous solids:
Short-range ~Short-range Order
Order Long- No Long-range Order
range Order
Amorphous (Non-Crystalline) Solids
Are composed of randomly oriented atoms,
ions, or molecules that do not form
patterns or lattice structures. defined
materials have order only within a fewAmorphous
atomic or
molecular dimensions.
Amorphous Solids
Amorphous solids are rigid structures but they lack
a well-defined shape. They do not have a geometric
shape. So they are non-crystalline. This is why they do
not have edges like crystals do. The most common
example of an amorphous solid is glass. Gels, plastics,
various polymers, wax, thin films are also good examples
of amorphous solids.
Polycrystalline Solids
Polycrystalline materials, or polycrystals,
are solids that are composed of many crystallites of
varying size and orientation. Most inorganic
solids are polycrystalline, including many ceramics,
rocks, and ice.
Crystalline Solids
These are the most common type of solids. Their
characteristics are what we associate solids with. They
are firm, hold a definite and fixed shape, are rigid and
incompressible. They generally have geometric
shapes and flat faces. And examples
diamonds, metals, salts etc. include
Crystalline Solids
To understand crystals we must understand their
structure. The arrangement of particles in a crystalline solid is
in a very orderly fashion. These articles are arranged in a
repeating pattern of a three-dimensional network. This
network is known as a Crystal lattice and the smallest unit of a
crystal is a Unit Cell. If you see the X-ray of a crystal this
distinct arrangement of the unit cells will be clearly visible.
The spaces between the atoms are very less due to high
intermolecular forces. This results in crystals having high
melting and boiling points. The intermolecular force is also
uniform throughout the structure.
Crystals are Everywhere!
Still More Crystals
• All crystals are solids, but all solids are not
crystalline! Crystals have symmetry (As first
reported by Kepler who studied snowflakes!!) &
long range order
• Spheres & small
shapes can be packed
to produce regular
shapes.
• Crystallography is the study of crystals.
• Scientists who specialize in the study of crystals
are called crystallographers.
• Early studies of crystals were carried out by
mineralogists & geologists who studied the
symmetries and shapes (morphology) of
naturally-occurring mineral specimens.
 Crystallograph
•y These early studies led to the correct idea that crystals are
regular three-dimensional arrays (Bravais lattices) of atoms
and molecules.
• A single unit cell is repeated indefinitely along three principal
directions that are not necessarily perpendicular.
Concept of Unit
Cell A unit cell is the most basic and
least volume consuming repeating
structure of any solid. It is used to
visually simplify the crystalline
patterns solids arrange themselves
in. The entire of the space lattice is
built by the repeating arrangement
of unit cells. A unit cell is a
geometric shape even by itself. It has
three edges. And these three edges
form three respective angles.
 Unit Cell Description in Terms of Lattice
Parameters
• a ,b, & c define the edge
lengths & are referred to as
the crystallographic axes.
c
• The angles between
these are α, β, &

a 
γ.

• The lattice parameters a ,b, c,
α, β, & γ give the dimensions
b
of the unit cell.
The Classifications of Unit
Cells
1. )Primitive Cell
A primitive cell is a unit cell that contains
exactly one lattice point. It is the smallest
possible cell.
2.) Body Centered
Body-centered lattice, like all lattices, has lattice
points at the eight corners of the unit cell plus an
additional points at the center of the cell.
3. ) Face Centered
An arrangement of atoms in crystals in which
the atomic centers are disposed in space in such a
way that one atom is located at each of the corners of
the cube and one at the center of each face. This
structure also contains the same particles in the
centers of the six faces of the unit cell, for a total of
14 identical lattice points. The face-centered cubic
unit cell is the simplest repeating unit in a cubic
closest-packed structure.
3. ) Face Centered Unit Cell
2.) Base Centered
Base-centered or side-centered or end-centered
monoclinic lattice (orthorhombic-C), like all lattices, has
lattice points at the eight corners of the unit cell plus
additional points at the centers of two parallel sides of the
unit cell.
The 7 Crystal Systems
The structures of all crystals can be classified
according to the symmetry of the unit cells. There
are in total 7 groups, collectively called Crystal
Systems: Tricinic, Monoclinic, Orthorhombic,
Tetragonal, Trigonal, Hexagonal, and Cubic. The
symmetry of each group is described by the
relationship between the lattice sides a, b, and c and
angles α, β and γ.
1. Cubic Crystal System
The Cubic crystal system has the
highest symmetry. It also has the
greatest number of restrictions. Not
only do all the angles equal 90°,
but all the sides have the same
length as well.
The 7 Crystal Systems
2. In the Tetragonal crystal system
all the angles have to equal
90°and the two sides a and b have
the same length with c unequal to
them.
The 7 Crystal Systems
3. In the
Orthorhombic crystal
system, all the angles
must be 90°. The
sides, on the other
hand, can change
independently of
each other.
The 7 Crystal Systems
4. In the Monoclinic
crystal system all
the angles have to
equal 90°and the
two sides a and b
have the same
length with c
unequal to them.
The 7 Crystal Systems
5. The Hexagonal crystal system can be visualized as
a prism with hexagons as the bases.
The 7 Crystal Systems
6.) For the Trigonal, also known as Rhombohedral, crystal
system, the length of the sides and the angles are equal, but the
shape of the cell is harder to visualize.
The 7 Crystal Systems
7. Triclinic, also known as anorthic, is a crystal
system with the lowest symmetry.
The Bravais Lattices
The work of Auguste Bravais in the early 19th century revealed
that there are only fourteen different lattice structures (often
referred to as Bravais lattices). These fourteen different structures
are derived from seven crystal systems, which indicate the different
shapes a unit cell take and four types of lattices, which tells how the
atoms are arranged within the unit. . A method called X-ray
Diffraction is used to determine how the crystal is arranged. X-ray
Diffraction consists of a X-ray beam being fired at a solid, and
from the diffraction of the beams calculated by Bragg's Law the
configuration can be determined.
 The fourteen BravaisLattices show some similar
characteristics. These are
• Each point on the lattice represents one particle of the crystal,
This is a lattice point.
• This particular particle may be an atom, a molecule or even ions
• These lattice points of a crystal are joined together by straight
lines.
• By joining of these points we get the geometry (or shape) of the
crystal
• Every one of the fourteen lattices has such a unique geometry
14 Bravais Lattices
 Summary
•: Unit Cell. A unit cell is the most basic and least volume
consuming repeating structure of any solid. It is used to visually
simplify the crystalline patterns solids arrange themselves in.
When the unit cell repeats itself, the network is called a lattice.
• These unit cells are important for two reasons. First, a number of
metals, ionic solids, and intermetallic compounds crystallize in
cubic unit cells. Second, it is relatively easy to do calculations with
these unit cells because the cell-edge lengths are all the same and
the cell angles are all 90 in cubic unit cells.
 Summary
•: Unit Cell. A unit cell is the most basic and least volume
consuming repeating structure of any solid. It is the smallest
portion of a crystal lattice that shows the three-dimensional
pattern of the entire crystal. It is used to visually simplify the
crystalline patterns solids arrange themselves in. When the unit
cell repeats itself, the network is called a lattice.
• These unit cells are important for two reasons. First, a number of
metals, ionic solids, and intermetallic compounds crystallize in
cubic unit cells. Second, it is relatively easy to do calculations with
these unit cells because the cell-edge lengths are all the same and
the cell angles are all 90 in cubic unit cells.
Summary
: The centering types identify the locations of the lattice points
in the unit cell as follows:
• Primitive: lattice points on the cell corners only (sometimes called
simple)
• Base-centered: lattice points on the cell corners with one
additional point at the center of each face of one pair of parallel
faces of the cell (sometimes called end-centered)
• Body-centered: lattice points on the cell corners, with one
additional point at the center of the cell
• Face-centered: lattice points on the cell corners, with one
additional point at the center of each of the faces of the cell
Summary
:
Summary
:
“You don’t want to look
back and know you
could’ve done better.”

-end-
 METALS AND
FABRICATION OF
METALS
Objectives:
After studying this chapter, you should be able to do the following:

1. Identify the different types of ferrous and non-ferrous metals

2. Describe the properties and application of ferrous and non-ferrous metals.

3. Name and describe four forming operations that are used to shape metal alloys.

4.State the purposes of and describe procedures for the following heat treatments: process
annealing, stress relief annealing, normalizing, full annealing, and spheroidizing.
Metal
A metal is a material that is typically hard, opaque, shiny, and has good
electrical and thermal conductivity. Metals are generally malleable, that is, they can
be hammered or pressed permanently out of shape without breaking or cracking as
well as fusible (able to be fused or melted) and ductile (able to be drawn out into a
thin wire). Astrophysicists use the term "metal" to collectively describe all
elements other than hydrogen and helium. Thus, the metallicity of an object is the
proportion of its matter made up of chemical elements other than hydrogen and
helium.
Types of Metal Alloys

Metal alloys, by virtue of composition, are often grouped into two classes: ferrous and
nonferrous. Ferrous alloys, those in which iron is the principal constituent, include steels
and cast irons while the nonferrous are alloys that are not iron based.

FERROUS ALLOYS

Ferrous alloys are those of which iron is the prime constituent. They are produced in
larger quantities than any other metal type. They are especially important as engineering
construction materials
Their widespread use is accounted for by three factors:

(1) iron-containing compounds exist in abundant quantities within the earth’s crust;

(2)metallic iron and steel alloys may be produced using relatively economical extraction,
refining, alloying, and fabrication techniques; and

(3)ferrous alloys are extremely versatile; in that they may be tailored to have a wide
range of mechanical and physical properties.

The principal disadvantage of many ferrous alloys is their susceptibility to corrosion.

A
taxonomic classification scheme for the various ferrous alloys is presented in Figure 1.
Steels

Steels are iron–carbon alloys that may contain appreciable concentrations of other
alloying elements; there are thousands of alloys that have different compositions and/or
heat treatments. The mechanical properties are sensitive to the content of carbon, which
is normally less than 1.0 wt.%. Some of the more common steels are classified according
to carbon concentration namely: low, medium, and high-carbon types. Subclasses also
exist within each group according to the concentration of other alloying elements. Plain
carbon steels contain only residual concentrations of impurities other than carbon and a
little manganese. For alloy steels, more alloying elements are intentionally added in specific
concentrations.
Low-carbon Steels

Low-carbon steels contain less than 0.25%C. it is not very responsive to heat
treatments and strengthening is accomplished by cold work. It is soft, weak,
tough, ductile, machinable, weldable and not expensive. They typically have a
yield strength of 275 MPa (40,000 psi), tensile strengths between 415 and 550 MPa
(60,000 and 80,000 psi), and a ductility of 25%EL.Typical applications include
automobile body components, structural shapes (I-beams, channel and angle iron),
and sheets that are used in pipelines, buildings, bridges, and tin cans..
High-strength, Low-alloy (HSLA) Steels

It contains alloying elements such as copper, vanadium, nickel, and

molybdenum in combined concentrations of >10 wt%. It is stronger than plain
low-C steels. Most may be strengthened by heat treatment, giving tensile strengths
in excess of 480 MPa (70,000 psi). They are ductile, formable and machinable.
In normal atmospheres, the HSLA steels are more resistant to corrosion than the
plain carbon steels.
Medium-Carbon Steels

Medium-carbon steels contain 0.25-0.60 wt.% of carbon. It is stronger than low-

carbon steels but less ductile and less tough. These alloys may be heat-treated by
austenitizing, quenching, and then tempering to improve their mechanical properties. It
can only be heat treated in very thin sections and with very rapid quenching rates but with
the addition of chromium, nickel, and molybdenum improve the capacity of these alloys
to be heat-treated. Applications include railway wheels and tracks, gears,
crankshafts, and other machine parts and high-strength structural components
calling for a combination of high strength, wear resistance, and toughness.
High-Carbon Steels

The high-carbon steels, normally having carbon contents between 0.60 and 1.4 wt%.
It is the hardest, strongest, and yet least ductile of the carbon steels. They are almost
always used in a hardened and tempered condition, wear resistant and capable of
holding a sharp cutting edge. The tool and die steels are high-carbon alloys, usually
containing chromium, vanadium, tungsten, and molybdenum. These alloying elements
combine with carbon to form very hard and wear-resistant carbide compounds (e.g.,
Cr23C6, V4C3, and WC). These steels are used as cutting tools and dies for forming
and shaping materials, as well as in knives, razors, hacksaw blades, springs, and
high-strength wire.
Stainless Steels

The stainless steels are highly resistant to corrosion (rusting) in a variety of

environments, especially the ambient atmosphere. Their predominant alloying
element is chromium; a concentration of at least 11 wt% Cr is required. Corrosion
resistance may also be enhanced by nickel and molybdenum additions. Stainless
steels are divided into three classes on the basis of the predominant phase
constituent of the microstructure—martensitic, ferritic, or austenitic.
Martensitic Stainless Steels

Austenitic Stainless Steels

Ferritic Stainless Steels

1. Martensitic stainless steels are capable of being heat treated in such a way
that
martensite is the prime microconstituent. Additions of alloying elements in
significant concentrations produce dramatic alterations in the iron–iron carbide
phase diagram.

2.For austenitic stainless steels, the austenite (or ɣ) phase field is extended to
room temperature. The austenitic stainless steels are the most corrosion resistant
because of the high chromium contents and also the nickel additions; and they are
produced in the largest quantities..
3. Ferritic stainless steels are composed of the α-ferrite (BCC) phase. Austenitic
and ferritic stainless steels are hardened and strengthened by cold work because
they are not heat treatable. Both martensitic and ferritic stainless steels are
magnetic; the austenitic stainlesses are not. Equipment employing these steels
includes gas turbines, high-temperature steam boilers, heat-treating furnaces,
aircraft, missiles, and nuclear power generating units. Several stainless steels by
class, along with composition, typical mechanical properties, and applications can
be seen in Table 4.0.
Cast Irons

Theoretically, it contains > 2.14 wt.% of carbon. Usually contains between 3.0-
4.5 wt.% C, hence it is very brittle. They become liquid easily between 1150 0C and
1300 0C. They are easily melted and amenable to casting. It is Inexpensive,
machinable and wear resistant. The most common cast iron types are gray,
nodular, white, malleable, and compacted graphite.
• Gray Iron

The carbon and silicon contents of gray cast irons vary between 2.5 and 4.0 wt
% and 1.0 and 3.0 wt%, respectively. Mechanically, gray iron is comparatively weak
and brittle in tension. Strength and ductility are much higher under compressive
loads. They are very effective in damping vibrational energy. In addition, gray irons
exhibit a high resistance to wear and the least expensive of all metallic
materials.
• Ductile (or Nodular) Iron

Adding a small amount of magnesium and/or cerium to the gray iron before
casting produces a distinctly different microstructure and set of mechanical
properties. Graphite still forms, but as nodules or sphere-like particles instead of
flakes. Castings are stronger and much more ductile than gray iron. It has
mechanical characteristics approaching those of steel. Typical applications for
this material include valves, pump bodies, crankshafts, gears, and other
automotive and machine components.
• White Iron
For low-silicon cast irons (containing less than 1.0 wt% Si) and rapid cooling rates,
most of the carbon exists as cementite instead of graphite. A fracture surface of this alloy
has a white appearance, and thus it is termed white cast iron. Thick sections may have
only a surface layer of white iron that was “chilled” during the casting process; gray iron
forms at interior regions, which cool more slowly. As a consequence of large amounts of
the cementite phase, white iron is extremely hard but also very brittle, to the point of
being virtually unmachinable. Its use is limited to applications that necessitate a very
hard and wear-resistant surface, without a high degree of ductility—for example,
as rollers in rolling mills.
Compacted Graphite Iron Malleable Iron

White Iron
• Malleable Iron

Heating white iron at temperatures between 800°C and 900°C for a prolonged time
period and in a neutral atmosphere (to prevent oxidation) causes a decomposition of the
cementite, forming graphite, which exists in the form of clusters or rosettes
surrounded by a ferrite or pearlite matrix, depending on cooling rate. The microstructure
is similar to that for nodular iron which accounts for relatively high strength and
appreciable ductility or malleability. Representative applications include connecting
rods, transmission gears, and differential cases for the automotive industry, and
also flanges, pipe fittings, and valve parts for railroad, marine, and other heavy-
duty services.
• Compacted Graphite Iron

A relatively recent addition to the family of cast irons. As with gray, ductile, and malleable
irons, carbon exists as graphite, which formation is promoted by the presence of silicon. Silicon
content ranges between 1.7 and 3.0 wt%, whereas carbon concentration is normally between 3.1
and 4.0 wt%. Microstructurally, the graphite in CGI alloys has a worm-like (or vermicular) shape.
Magnesium and/or cerium is also added, but concentrations are lower than for ductile iron. An
increase in degree of nodularity of the graphite particles leads to enhancements of both strength
and ductility. Tensile and yield strengths for compacted graphite irons are comparable to
values for ductile and malleable irons, yet are greater than those observed for the higher
strength gray irons.
 In addition, ductilities for CGIs are intermediate between values for gray and

ductile irons; also, moduli of elasticity range between 140 and 165 GPa ( and psi).
Compared to the other cast iron types, desirable characteristics of CGIs include
the following: higher thermal conductivity, better resistance to thermal shock (i.e.,
fracture resulting from rapid temperature changes) and lower oxidation at elevated
temperatures. Compacted graphite irons are now being used in a number of
important applications—these include: diesel engine blocks, exhaust manifolds,
gearbox housings, brake discs for high-speed trains, and flywheels.
NONFERROUS ALLOYS

Non-ferrous alloys are metals that do not have any iron in them at all. It is not
attracted to the magnet and do not rust easily when exposed to moisture.

Copper and Its Alloys

It is highly resistant to corrosion in diverse environments including the ambient

atmosphere, seawater, and some industrial chemicals. Most copper alloys cannot be
hardened or strengthened by heat-treating procedures; consequently, cold working and/or
solid-solution alloying must be utilized to improve these mechanical properties.
 The most common copper alloys are the brasses for which zinc, as a
substitutional
impurity, is the predominant alloying element. The bronzes are alloys of copper and
several other elements, including tin, aluminum, silicon, and nickel. The most common
heat-treatable copper alloys are the beryllium coppers. They possess a
remarkable
combination of properties: tensile strengths as high as 1400 MPa (200,000 psi), excellent
electrical and corrosion properties, and wear resistance when properly lubricated; they may
be cast, hot worked, or cold worked. Applications include jet aircraft landing gear bearings
and bushings, springs, and surgical and dental instruments. Table 5.0 shows the
composition, mechanical properties and typical application of some copper alloys..
Aluminum and Its Alloys

Aluminum and its alloys are characterized by a relatively low density (2.7 g/cm3 as
compared to 7.9 g/cm3 for steel), high electrical and thermal conductivities, and a resistance to
corrosion in some common environments, including the ambient atmosphere. Many of these
alloys are easily formed by virtue of high ductility; this is evidenced by the thin aluminum foil sheet
into which the relatively pure material may be rolled. The chief limitation of aluminum is its low
melting temperature 660°C. Principal alloying elements include copper, magnesium, silicon,
manganese, and zinc. Generally, aluminum alloys are classified as either cast or wrought. Some of
the more common applications of aluminum alloys include aircraft structural parts, beverage cans,
bus bodies, and automotive parts (engine blocks, pistons, and manifolds).
Magnesium and Its Alloys

The most outstanding characteristic of magnesium is its density, 1.7 g/cm3, which is the
lowest of all the structural metals. Magnesium has an HCP crystal structure, is relatively soft, and
has a low elastic modulus: 45 GPa. Consequently, most fabrication is by casting or hot working at
temperatures between 200 and 350°C. It h has a moderately low melting temperature 651°C.
Chemically, magnesium alloys are relatively unstable and especially susceptible to corrosion in
marine environments. Fine magnesium powder ignites easily when heated in air; consequently, care
should be exercised when handling it in this state. These alloys are used in aircraft and missile
applications, as well as in luggage. For many applications, magnesium alloys have replaced
engineering plastics that have comparable densities in as much as the magnesium materials are
stiffer, more recyclable, and less costly to produce.
Titanium and Its Alloys

Titanium and its alloys are relatively new engineering materials that possess an extraordinary
combination of properties. The pure metal has a relatively low density (4.5 g/cm3), a high melting
point [1668°C ], and an elastic modulus of 107 GPa ( psi). Titanium alloys are extremely strong;
room temperature tensile strengths as high as 1400 MPa (200,000 psi) are attainable, yielding
remarkable specific strengths. The major limitation of titanium is its chemical reactivity with
other materials at elevated temperatures and quite expensive. In spite of this high temperature
reactivity, the corrosion resistance of titanium alloys at normal temperatures is unusually high; they
are virtually immune to air, marine, and a variety of industrial environments. They are commonly
utilized in airplane structures, space vehicles, surgical implants, and in the petroleum and chemical
industries.
The Refractory Metals

Metals that have extremely high melting temperatures are classified as the refractory
metals. Included in this group are niobium (Nb), molybdenum (Mo), tungsten (W),
and tantalum (Ta). Melting temperatures range between 2468 °C for niobium and 3410
0C for tungsten. Tantalum and molybdenum are alloyed with stainless steel to improve its
corrosion resistance. Molybdenum alloys are utilized for extrusion dies and structural
parts in space vehicles; incandescent light filaments, x-ray tubes, and welding electrodes
employ tungsten alloys. Tantalum is immune to chemical attack by virtually all
environments at temperatures below 150°C and is frequently used in applications
requiring such a corrosion-resistant material.
The Superalloys

The superalloys have superlative combinations of properties. Most are used in

aircraft turbine components, which must withstand exposure to severely oxidizing
environments and high temperatures for reasonable time periods. These materials
are classified according to the predominant metal(s) in the alloy, of which there are
three groups—iron–nickel, nickel, and cobalt. Other alloying elements include the
refractory metals (Nb, Mo, W, Ta), chromium, and titanium. The several
compositions of superalloys can be seen in Table 6.0.
The Noble Metals

The noble or precious metals are a group of eight elements that have some
physical characteristics in common. They are expensive (precious) and are superior
or notable (noble) in properties, that is, characteristically soft, ductile, and oxidation
resistant. The noble metals are silver, gold, platinum, palladium, rhodium,
ruthenium, iridium, and osmium; the first three are most common and are used
extensively in jewelry.
Miscellaneous Nonferrous Alloys

Nickel and its alloys are highly resistant to corrosion in many environments,
especially those that are basic (alkaline). It is one of the principal alloying elements
in stainless steels and one of the major constituents in the superalloys.

Lead, tin, and their alloys find some use as engineering materials. Both lead and
tin are mechanically soft and weak, have low melting temperatures, are quite
resistant to many corrosion environments, and have recrystallization temperatures
below room temperature..
Unalloyed zinc also is a relatively soft metal having a low melting temperature
and

a sub-ambient recrystallization temperature. Chemically, it is reactive in a number

of common environments and, therefore, susceptible to corrosion.

Zirconium and its alloys are ductile and have other mechanical characteristics
that are comparable to those of titanium alloys and the austenitic stainless steels.
However, the primary asset of these alloys is their resistance to corrosion in a host
of corrosive media, including superheated water.
FABRICATION OF METALS

Metal fabrication techniques are normally preceded by refining, alloying, and

often heat treating processes that produce alloys with the desired characteristics.
The classifications of fabrication techniques include various metal-forming
methods, casting, powder metallurgy, welding, and machining; often two or more
of them must be used before a piece is finished. The methods chosen depend on
several factors; the most important are the properties of the metal, the size and
shape of the finished piece, and, of course, cost.
FORMING OPERATIONS

Forming operations are those in which the shape of a metal piece is changed
by plastic deformation; for example, forging, rolling, extrusion, and drawing are
common forming techniques.

Forging

Forging is mechanically working or deforming a single piece of a normally hot

metal; this may be accomplished by the application of successive blows or by
continuous squeezing.
Forgings are classified as:

1. closed die - a force is brought to bear on two

or more die halves having the finished shape
such that the metal isdeformed
in the cavity
between them

2.open die -two dies having simple geometric

shapes (e.g., parallel flat, semicircular) are
employed, normally on large workpieces.
Rolling

Rolling is the most widely used

deformation process, consists of passing a piece
of metal between two rolls; a reduction in
thickness results from compressive stresses
exerted by the rolls. Cold rolling may be used in
the production of sheet, strip, and foil with high
quality surface finish. Circular shapes as well as
I-beams and railroad rails are fabricated using
grooved rolls..
Extrusion

For extrusion, a bar of metal is forced

through a die orifice by a compressive force
that is applied to a ram; the extruded piece
that emerges has the desired shape and a
reduced cross-sectional area. Extrusion
products include rods and tubing that
have
rather complicated cross-sectional
geometries; seamless may also
tubing extruded.. be
Drawing

Drawing is the pulling of a metal piece

through a die having a tapered bore by
means of a tensile force that is applied on
the exit side. A reduction in cross section
results, with a corresponding increase in
length. Rod, wire, and tubing products are
commonly fabricated in this way.
CASTING

Casting is a fabrication process whereby a totally molten metal is poured into a mold cavity
having the desired shape; upon solidification, the metal assumes the shape of the mold but
experiences some shrinkage. Casting techniques are employed when:

(1) the finished shape is so large or complicated that any other method would be impractical

(2)a particular alloy is so low in ductility that forming by either hot or cold working would be
difficult, and

(3) in comparison to other fabrication processes, casting is the most economical.

A number of different casting techniques are commonly employed, including sand, die,
investment, lost foam, and continuous casting. .
Sand Casting

With sand casting, probably the most common method, ordinary sand is used
as the mold material. A two-piece mold is formed by packing sand around a
pattern that has the shape of the intended casting. Furthermore, a gating system is
usually incorporated into the mold to expedite the flow of molten metal into the
cavity and to minimize internal casting defects. Sand-cast parts include automotive
cylinder blocks, fire hydrants, and large pipe fittings. Figure 7 shows the step by
step procedure of sand casting from the pattern making up to the sand cast metal. .
Die Casting

In die casting, the liquid metal is forced into a mold under pressure and at a
relatively
high velocity, and allowed to solidify with the pressure maintained. A two-piece permanent
steel mold or die is employed; when clamped together, the two pieces form the desired
shape. When complete solidification has been achieved, the die pieces are opened and the
cast piece is ejected. However, this technique lends itself only to relatively small pieces and
to alloys of zinc, aluminum, and magnesium, which have low melting temperatures. Figure
8 shows the sample of die casting process..
Investment Casting

For investment (sometimes called lost-wax) casting, the pattern is made from a
wax or plastic that has a low melting temperature. Around the pattern is poured a fluid
slurry, which sets up to form a solid mold or investment; plaster of paris is usually used.
The mold is then heated, such that the pattern melts and is burned out, leaving behind a
mold cavity having the desired shape. This technique is employed when high dimensional
accuracy, reproduction of fine detail, and an excellent finish are require, for example, in
jewelry and dental crowns and inlays. Also, blades for gas turbines and jet engine impellers
are investment cast. The procedure of investment casting can be seen in Figure 9.
Lost Foam Casting

A variation of investment casting is lost foam (or expendable pattern) casting. Here the
expendable pattern is a foam that can be formed by compressing polystyrene beads into the
desired shape and then bonding them together by heating. Alternatively, pattern shapes can be cut
from sheets and assembled with glue. Sand is then packed around the pattern to form the mold. As
the molten metal is poured into the mold, it replaces the pattern which vaporizes. The compacted
sand remains in place, and, upon solidification, the metal assumes the shape of the mold. Metal
alloys that most commonly use this technique are cast irons and aluminum alloys; furthermore,
applications include automobile engine blocks, cylinder heads, crankshafts, marine engine blocks,
and electric motor frames.
Continuous Casting

At the conclusion of extraction processes, many molten metals are solidified by casting
into large ingot molds. The ingots are normally subjected to a primary hot-rolling
operation, the product of which is a flat sheet or slab; these are more convenient shapes as
starting points for subsequent secondary metal-forming operations (i.e., forging, extrusion,
drawing). Using this technique, the refined and molten metal is cast directly into a
continuous strand that may have either a rectangular or circular cross section; solidification
occurs in a water-cooled die having the desired cross-sectional geometry. Furthermore,
continuous casting is highly automated and more efficient. Figure 11 shows the schematic
illustration of continuous casting
Miscellaneous Techniques

Powder Metallurgy

Another fabrication technique involves the compaction of powdered metal,

followed by a heat treatment to produce a denser piece. This method is especially suitable
for metals having low ductilities, since only small plastic deformation of the powder
particles need occur. Metals having high melting temperatures are difficult to melt and
cast, and fabrication is expedited using P/M. Furthermore, parts that require very close
dimensional tolerances (e.g., bushings and gears) may be economically produced using this
technique..
Welding

In a sense, welding may be considered to be a fabrication technique. In

welding, two or more metal parts are joined to form a single piece when one-part
fabrication is expensive or inconvenient. Both similar and dissimilar metals may be
welded. The joining bond is metallurgical (involving some diffusion) rather than
just mechanical, as with riveting and bolting. A variety of welding methods exist,
including arc and gas welding, as well as brazing and soldering.
Heat Treatment

Heat Treatment is often associated with increasing the strength of material,

but it can also be used to alter certain manufacturability objectives such as improve
machining, improve formability, restore ductility after a cold working operation.
Thus it is a very enabling manufacturing process that can not only help other
manufacturing process, but can also improve product performance by increasing
strength or other desirable characteristics.
Heat Treatment Methods

Annealing

Annealing is a heat treatment process in which a material is exposed to an elevated

temperature for an extended time period and then slowly cooled. Typically, annealing is
carried out to relieve stresses; to increase softness, ductility, and toughness; and/or to
produce a specific microstructure. Annealing process consists of three stages:

(1) heating to the desired temperature,

(2) holding or “soaking” at that temperature, and

(3) cooling, usually to room temperature. .

Normalizing

Normalizing is a heat treatment process used to refine the grains and produce a
more uniform and desirable size distribution. It is accomplished by heating at least 55°C
(100°F) above the upper critical temperature. for making material softer but does not
produce the uniform material properties of annealing.

Hardening

Hardening is the process for making material harder. In this process, the metal is
heated to a specific temperature and rapidly cooled (quenched) in a bath of water, brine,
oil, or air to increase its hardness.
Ageing or Precipitation Hardening

Ageing or precipitation hardening is a heat treatment method mostly used to increase the
yield strength of malleable metals. The process produces uniformly dispersed particles within a
metal’s grain structure which bring about changes in properties. It is usually comes after another
heat treatment process that reaches higher temperatures. Ageing, however, only elevates the
temperature to medium levels and brings it down quickly again.

Stress Relieving

Stress relieving is especially common for boiler parts, air bottles, accumulators, etc. This
method takes the metal to a temperature just below its lower critical border. The cooling process is
slow and therefore uniform. This is done to relieve stresses that have built in up in the parts due to
earlier processes such as forming, machining, rolling or straightening.
Tempering

Tempering carried out by preheating previously quenched or normalized steel to a

temperature below the lower critical temperature (often from 205 to 595 ˚C), holding, and then
cooling to obtain the desired mechanical properties. is used to reduce the brittleness of quenched
steel. The temperature chosen for the tempering process directly impacts the hardness of the work
piece. The higher the temperature in the tempering process, the lower the hardness.

Case hardening

Case hardening or Surface hardening is the process of hardening the surface of steel while
leaving the interior unchanged. It improves the wear resistance of machine parts without affecting
the tough interior of the parts. Many processes are available for surface hardening. This type of
process is normally used on a steel with a low carbon content, usually less than 0.2%.
The principal forms of casehardening are :

Carburizing

It is process of increasing the carbon content on the surface of steel. It is a heat treatment
process in which iron or steel is heated in the presence of another material (in the range of 900 to
950 °C ) which liberates carbon as it decomposes

Cyaniding

It is a process of producing hard surfaces by immersing low carbon steel in cyanide bath
maintained at 800°C – 850°C. The parts are then quenched in water or oil. This process helps to
maintain bright finish of the parts. It requires much care and attention in handling the salt because
of its poisonous nature.
Nitriding

It is a process of diffusing the nitrogen in to the surface of steel. The process

is carried out by heating of steel in the presence of dissociated ammonia at a
temperature 460°C – 570°C. The diffused nitrogen combines with iron & certain
alloying elements present in steel and form respective nitrides.
“Don’t wait until you’ve reached your goal to be proud of yourself. Be
proud of every step you take toward reaching that goal.”

- unknown

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