Introduction-History of Materials As Used in Building Construction, Material Properties and Its Application

1.
Introduction- HISTORY OF MATERIALS AS USED

IN BUILDING CONSTRUCTION, MATERIAL
PROPERTIES AND ITS APPLICATION
1 .1 Historical Perspective
Materials are so important in the development of civilization that we

associate Ages with them. In the origin of human life on Earth, the
Stone Age, people used only natural materials, like stone, clay, skins,
and wood. When people found copper and how to make it harder by
alloying, the Bronze Age started about 3000 BC. The use of iron and
steel, a stronger material that gave advantage in wars started at about
1200 BC. The next big step was the discovery of a cheap process to
make steel around 1850, which enabled the railroads and the building
of the modern infrastructure of the industrial world.
1.2 Materials Science and Engineering
Understanding of how materials behave like they do, and why they
differ in properties was only possible with the atomistic understanding
allowed by quantum mechanics, that first explained atoms and then
solids starting in the 1930s. The combination of physics, chemistry, and
the focus on the relationship between the properties of a material and
its microstructure is the domain of Materials Science. The development
of this science allowed designing materials and provided a knowledge
base for the engineering applications (Materials Engineering).
Structure:
 At the atomic level: arrangement of atoms in different ways.

(Gives different properties for graphite than diamond both forms
of carbon.)
 At the microscopic level: arrangement of small grains of material
that can be identified by microscopy. (Gives different optical
properties to transparent vs. frosted glass.)
Properties are the way the material responds to the environment. For
instance, the mechanical, electrical and magnetic properties are the
responses to mechanical, electrical and magnetic forces, respectively.
Other important properties are thermal (transmission of heat, heat
capacity), optical (absorption, transmission and scattering of light), and
the chemical stability in contact with the environment (like corrosion
resistance).
Processing of materials is the application of heat (heat treatment),

mechanical forces, etc. to affect their microstructure and, therefore,
their properties.
1.3 Why Study Materials Science and Engineering?
 To be able to select a material for a given use based on

considerations of cost and performance.
 To understand the limits of materials and the change of their
properties with use.
 To be able to create a new material that will have some desirable
properties.
All engineering disciplines need to know about materials. Even the

most "immaterial", like software or system engineering depend on the
development of new materials, which in turn alter the economics, like
software-hardware trade-offs. Increasing applications of system
engineering are in materials manufacturing (industrial engineering)
and complex environmental systems.
1.4 Classification of Materials
Like many other things, materials are classified in groups, so that our
brain can handle the complexity. One could classify them according to
structure, or properties, or use. The one that we will use is according to
the way the atoms are bound together:
Metals: valence electrons are detached from atoms, and spread in an

'electron sea' that "glues" the ions together. Metals are usually strong,
conduct electricity and heat well and are opaque to light (shiny if
polished). Examples: aluminum, steel, brass, gold.
Semiconductors: the bonding is covalent (electrons are shared between

atoms). Their electrical properties depend extremely strongly on minute
proportions of contaminants. They are opaque to visible light but
transparent to the infrared. Examples: Si, Ge, GaAs.
Ceramics: atoms behave mostly like either positive or negative ions, and
are bound by Coulomb forces between them. They are usually
combinations of metals or semiconductors with oxygen, nitrogen or
carbon (oxides, nitrides, and carbides). Examples: glass, porcelain, many
minerals.
Polymers: are bound by covalent forces and also by weak van der Waals
forces, and usually based on H, C and other non-metallic elements. They
decompose at moderate temperatures (100 – 400 C), and are
lightweight. Other properties vary greatly. Examples: plastics (nylon,
Teflon, polyester) and rubber.
Other categories are not based on bonding. A particular microstructure

identifies composites, made of different materials in intimate contact
(example: fiberglass, concrete, wood) to achieve specific
properties. Biomaterials can be any type of material that is
biocompatible and used, for instance, to replace human body parts.
1.5 Advanced Materials
Materials used in "High-Tec" applications, usually designed for

maximum performance, and normally expensive. Examples are titanium
alloys for supersonic airplanes, magnetic alloys for computer disks,
special ceramics for the heat shield of the space shuttle, etc.
1.6 Modern Material's Needs
 Engine efficiency increases at high temperatures: requires high

temperature structural materials
 Use of nuclear energy requires solving problem with residues, or
advances in nuclear waste processing.
 Hypersonic flight requires materials that are light, strong and
resist high temperatures.
 Optical communications require optical fibers that absorb light
negligibly.
 Civil construction – materials for unbreakable windows.
 Structures: materials that are strong like metals and resist
corrosion like plastics.

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1.

Introduction- HISTORY OF MATERIALS AS USED

Materials are so important in the development of civilization that we

1.2 Materials Science and Engineering

 At the atomic level: arrangement of atoms in different ways.

Processing of materials is the application of heat (heat treatment),

1.3 Why Study Materials Science and Engineering?

 To be able to select a material for a given use based on

All engineering disciplines need to know about materials. Even the

1.4 Classification of Materials

Metals: valence electrons are detached from atoms, and spread in an

Semiconductors: the bonding is covalent (electrons are shared between

Other categories are not based on bonding. A particular microstructure

1.5 Advanced Materials

Materials used in "High-Tec" applications, usually designed for

1.6 Modern Material's Needs

 Engine efficiency increases at high temperatures: requires high

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