SURVEYING

Introduction
 Introduction to Surveying
► Definition:
► Surveying is the art and science of taking
field measurements on or near the surface
of the earth.
 Surveying measurements include horizontal and
slope distance, vertical distances, horizontal and
vertical angles and positions.
 Introduction to Surveying
► Surveyingis the art of measuring distances,
angles and positions on or near the surface of the
earth.
► Why it is an art?
Because only a surveyor who possesses through
understanding of surveying techniques will be able
to determine the most efficient methods required
to obtain optimal results over a wide variety of
surveying problems.
 Introduction to Surveying
► Why it is scientific?
Because the use of mathematical techniques
to analyze field data, accuracy and reliability
depends on understanding scientific
principles underlying and affecting survey
measurement.
 Introduction to Surveying
► What is Geomatics?
Geomatics is a term describing the
computerization and digitization of data collection,
data processing, data analysis and data output.
► Geomatics cover:
– Geodetic Surveying
– Surveying or Land Surveying
– Remote Sensing
– Photogrammetry
– Cartography
– Geographic Information System/GIS
– Global Positioning System (GPS)
Introduction to Surveying
 The work of the surveyor
consists of 5 phases
1. Decision Making – selecting method, equipment
and final point locations.
2. Fieldwork & Data Collection – making
measurements and recording data in the field.
3. Computing & Data Processing – preparing
calculations based upon the recorded data to
determine locations in a useable form.
4. Mapping or Data Representation – plotting data
to produce a map, plot, or chart in the proper form.
5. Stakeout – locating and establishing monuments or
stakes in the proper locations in the field.
 Classification of Surveying
Primary Classification of Surveying
1. Plane surveying - the type of
surveying in which the mean surface
of the earth is considered as a plane,
or in which its spheroidal shape is
neglected, with regard to horizontal
distances and directions.

2. Geodetic surveying - the type of

surveying that takes into account the
true shape of the earth. These
surveys are of high precision and
extend over large areas.
What is Engineering Surveying?
► Engineering surveying includes those
activities involved in the planning and
execution of surveys for the location,
design, construction, maintenance and
operation of civil and other engineered
projects.
 What activities are included in
engineering surveying?
► Preparation of surveying and related mapping specifications.
► Execution of remote sensing and field surveys for the collection
of required data – including topographic and hydrographic data.
► Calculation, reduction, and plotting (manual and computer-
aided) of survey data for use in engineering design.
► Design and provision of horizontal and vertical control networks.
► Provision of line and grade for construction.
► Measurement of materials and other quantities for inventory,
cost accounting, and payment purposes.
► Execution of as-built surveys and plans.
 What are the two most common
applications of surveying?
► The location of ground features (natural and
built) are measured to prepare a plan or
map of the area.
► Design features, shown on an engineering
plan, are located in the field by distance and
angle measurements or through positioning
techniques.
Classes of Surveys
 Preliminary survey.
►Rectangular tie-ins
►Polar tie-ins
►Intersection tie-ins
►Positioning tie-ins
 Layout survey.
►Rectangular layout
►Polar layout
►Positioning layout
►Machine guidance and control
 Control survey.
 Classes of Surveys

Preliminary survey: (data gathering) is the gathering

of data (distances, position and angles) to locate
physical features (rivers, roads, structures) so that data
can be plotted to scale (map or plan), also include
difference in elevation so that contour could be plotted.
 Classes of Surveys
Layout survey: marking on the ground using sticks iron
bar or concrete monuments. The features shown on a
design plan features:
- Property lines (subdivision survey).
- Engineering work (construction survey).
- Z-dimensions are given for x-y directions.

Control survey: are reference surveys. For a particular

control survey a number of points are established and their
horizontal and vertical positions are accurately determined.
The points are established so that other work can
.conveniently be referenced or oriented to them
 Surveying Fields
 Topographic Surveys
 Hydrographic surveys
 Route surveys
 Property Surveys
 Aerial Surveys
 Construction surveys
 Final (As-Built) Surveys
 Surveying Fields

1 - Topographic survey: preliminary surveys used to tie

earth surface features such as rivers, lakes, forests, hills
and manmade features like roads, railways, towns, etc.

2 - Hydrographic survey: preliminary surveys tie

underwater feature to surface control line.

3 - Route survey: preliminary, layout and control

surveys that range over a narrow but long strip of
land (highways, railroads, electricity transmission
lines and channels).
 Surveying Fields
4 - Property survey: preliminary, layout and control
surveys determine boundary locations for a new
map.
5 - Aerial survey: preliminary and final surveys convert
aerial photograph into scale map using photogram
metric technology.
6 - Construction survey: layout of engineering work.

7 - Final (as built) survey: preliminary surveys tie in

features that just have been constructed.
Measurement of Distance
 Measurement of Distance

► Linear measurement is the basis of all surveying

and even though angles may be read precisely, the
length of at least one line in a tract must be measured
to supplement the angles in locating points.

► Methods:
• Direct methods
• Optical methods
• Electronic Distance Measuring (E.D.M) methods
 Measurement of Distance

► Inthe direct method, the distance is actually

measured during field work using a chain or a tape.
This is the most commonly used method for linear
measurements.
 Measurement of Distance

► Inthe optical method, principles of optics are used.

The distance is not actually measured in field but it is
computed indirectly. The instrument used for making
observations is called tacheometer.
 Measurement of Distance

► ElectronicDistance Measuring (EDM) instruments

have been developed quite recently.
► These are practically replacing the measurement of
distances using chains or tapes. There is a large
variety of such instruments and depending upon the
precision required the instruments should be used.
Measurement of Distance

l l l l

EDM

P l l l
 Measurement of Distance
► Distances between two points can be horizontal, slope
or vertical and are recorded in feet (English units) or
meters (SI units).
- Horizontal and slope distances can be measured with
a fiberglass, steel tape or electronic distance-
measuring device (EDM).
- Vertical distances can be measured with a tape, as in
construction work. However, they are more usually
measured with a surveyor’s level and level rod or with
a total station.
Measurement of Distance
Measurement of Distance by Pacing

Approximate methods
► The method below may be used in reconnaissance
or for detecting major mistakes in linear
measurements obtained with a chain or a tape.

Pacing
►A distance between two points
can be approximately determined
by counting the number of paces
and multiplying it with the
average length of pace.
Measurement of Distance by Pacing

The length of pace varies with the:

► individual,age, height and physical condition

► the nature of the ground (uphill and downhill)
► the speed of pacing
Measurement of Distance by Pacing

Small instrument in pacing:

Passometer:
It is a pocket instrument. It automatically records
the number of paces. It should be carried
vertically, in waistcoat pocket or suspended from
a button. The mechanism is being operated by
motion and strain of the body.
Pedometer:
This instrument registers the distance walked by
the persons carrying it. The distance is read by
means of an indicator. It is fitted with a stud or
knob, which when pressed release indicator to
zero. It may be carried in the same way as the
passometer.
Measurement of Distance by Pacing
Example
Example
Measurement of Distance by Taping

Taping
 the linear measurement of the horizontal distance
between two points using a surveyor’s tape.
 observation of horizontal distances by taping consists of
applying the known length of a graduated tape directly to
a line in a number of times.

Purposes for Taping:

1. Measuring the distance between two existing points
2. Laying out a known distance with only the starting point
in place
 Measuring Tapes
► Tapes are used for more accurate measurement.
The tapes are classified based on the materials
of which they are made of such as:
► Cloth or linen tape
► Fiber Tape
► Metallic Tape
► Steel tape
► Invar Tape
Measuring Tapes
 Measuring Tapes
Cloth or linen Tape
► Linen tapes are closely woven linen and
varnished to resist moisture. They are
generally 10 m, 20 m, 25 m and 30 m long
in length and 12 to 15 mm wide. They are
generally used for offset measurements.
These tapes are light and flexible.
Cloth or linen Tape
 Measuring Tapes
► Fiber Glass Tape
► These tapes are similar to linen and plastic
coated tapes but these are made of glass fibre.
The tapes are quite flexible, strong and non-
conductive. These can be used in the vicinity of
electrical equipment. These tapes do not stretch
or shrink due to changes in temperature or
moisture. These tapes are available in length of
20 m, 30 m and 50 m length.
Fiber Glass Tape
 Measuring Tapes
► Metallic Tape
► A linen tape reinforced with brass or copper wires
to prevent stretching or twisting of fibres is called
a metallic tape. As the wires are interwoven and
tape is varnished these wires are visible to naked
eyes. This is supplied in a lather case with a
winding device. Each metre length is divided into
ten parts (decimeters) and each part is further
sub-divided into ten parts. It is commonly used for
taking offset in chain surveying.
Metallic Tape
 Measuring Tapes
► Steel Tape
► The steel tape is made of steel ribbon of
width varying from 6 to 16 mm. The
commonly available length are 10 m, 15 m,
20 m, 30 m and 50 m. It is graduated in
meters, decimeters, and centimeters. Steel
tapes are used for accurate measurement of
distances.
Steel Tape
 Measuring Tapes
► Invar Tape
► Invar tape are made of alloy of nickel 36 %
and steel 64 % having very low co-efficient
of thermal expansion. These are 6 mm wide
and generally available in length of 30 m,
50 m, and 100 m. It is not affected by
change of temperature therefore, it is used
when high degree of precision is required.
Invar Tape
 Taping Error
1. Instrumental Error – a tape may have different length due to
defect in manufacture or repair or as the result of kinks
2. Natural Error – length of tape varies from normal due to
temperature, wind and weight of tape (sag)
3. Personal Error – tape person may be careless in setting pins,
reading the tape, or manipulating the equipment

Note that:
► Instrumental and natural error can be corrected mathematically, but
personal error can only be corrected by re-measure.
► When a tape is obtained, it should either be standardized or checked
against a standard.
► Tapes standardized at National Bureau of Standards in U.S. or the National
Research Council in Canada.
► Standardized at 68ºF and 10 lbs. tension fully supported.
Measurement of Distance by Taping
Standard Conditions for the Use of Steel Tapes
Tape manufacturers, noting that steel tapes behave
differently in various temperature, tension, and support
situations, specify the accuracy of their tapes under the
following standard conditions:
 Measurement of Distance by Taping
Systematic Taping Errors Random Taping Errors
a. Erroneous tape-length a. Erroneous tape-length
b. Temperature b. Temperature
c. Slope c. Slope
d. Pull/Tension d. Tension and sag
e. Sag e. Alignment
f. Mean Sea Level f. Marking and plumbing
► Systematic error or cumulative error is one that, for constant conditions, remains the same
as to sign and magnitude. For instance, if a steel tape is 0.10 ft too short, each time the tape is
used the same error (because of that factor) is made. If the full tape length is used 10 times,
the error accumulates and totals 10 times the error for one measurement.
► Random error/accidental error is one whose magnitude and direction is just an accident
and beyond the control of the surveyor. For instance, when a person reads a tape, he or she
cannot read it perfectly. One time he or she will read a value that is too large and the next
time will read a value that is too small. Since these errors are just as likely to have one sign as
the other, they tend to a certain degree to cancel each other or compensate for each other
Measurement of Distance by Taping
Four variations of taping corrections:

► When measuring the distance between two points:

1) With a tape too long, the distance will be short, thus
add the correction.
2) With a tape too short, the distance will be long, thus
subtract the correction.

► When laying out a distance of a line:

1) With a tape too long, subtract the correction.
2) With a tape too short, add the correction.
 Measurement of Distance by Taping
Systematic Taping Corrections
a. Erroneous Tape-Length Corrections
Before using a tape, the actual length is ascertained by comparing it
with a standard tape of known length (100 ft or 30 m).
If the actual tape length is not equal to the standard value, a correction
will have to be applied to the measured length of the line.

• Correction per tape length, c = –

• Total Correction of tape length, c
• Actual/true length of tape,
• Nominal or designated length of tape,
• Measured length/distance of the line, ML
• Correction for measured length or corrected length/distance of the line, CL
Measurement of Distance by Taping
General Formula:
Measurement of Distance by Taping
Example: Correction for Tape Length
Measurement of Distance by Taping
Example: Correction for Tape Length
Measurement of Distance by Taping
► Example:
A measurement is recorded as 171.278 m with a 30-m tape that is found
to be only 29.996 m under standard conditions. What is the corrected
measurement?
► Solution:
Correction per tape length = 29.996 – 30= – 0.004 m, too short
Total correction of tape= – 0.004 (171.278/30) = – 0.023 m
Corrected distance = 171.278 – 0.023 = 171.255 m

Checking:
Corrected distance = 171.278 (29.996/30) = 171.255 m
Measurement of Distance by Taping
► Example:
It is required to lay out the front corners of a building, a distance of
210.08 ft. The tape to be used is known to be 100.02 ft under standard
conditions.
► Solution:
Correction per tape length = 100.02 – 100 = +0.02 ft, too long
Total correction = +0.02 (210.08/100) = +0.04 ft

When the problem involves a layout distance, the algebraic sign of the
correction must be reversed before being applied to the layout measurement
(see slide #49 for reference).
We must find the distance that, when corrected by +0.04, will give 210.08 ft:
Layout distance = 210.08 - 0.04 = 210.04 ft
Measurement of Distance by Taping
Systematic Taping Corrections
b. Temperature
 We noted that the standard temperature for steel tapes is 68°F or
20°C. Most measurements taken with a steel tape occur at some
temperature other than standard (68°F or 20°C).
 When the temperature is warmer or cooler than standard, the steel
tape will expand or contract and thus introduce an error into the
measurement.
 The coefficient of thermal expansion and contraction of steel is
0.00000645 per unit length per degree Fahrenheit (°F) or 0.0000116
per unit length per degree Celsius (°C).
Measurement of Distance by Taping
General Formula:
Measurement of Distance by Taping
Example: Correction for Temperature Variation
Measurement of Distance by Taping
► Example:
A distance is recorded as being 471.37 ft at a temperature of
38°F. What is the corrected distance?
► Solution:
= 0.00000645 (38° - 68°) 471.37
= -0.09 ft, too short
Corrected distance = 471.37 - 0.09 = 471.28 ft
Measurement of Distance by Taping
► Example:
It is required to lay out two points in the field that will be
exactly 100.000 m apart. Field conditions indicate that the
temperature of the tape will be 27°C. What distance will be
laid out?
► Solution:
= 0.0000116 (27° - 20°) 100.000
= +0.008 m, too long

Because this is a layout (pre-correction) problem, the correction sign must be

reversed (i.e., we are looking for the distance that, when corrected by
+0.008 m, will give us 100.000 m):
Layout distance = 100.000 - 0.008 = 99.992 m
 Measurement of Distance by Taping
Systematic Taping Corrections
c. Pull/Tension
 If a steel tape is fully supported and a tension other than
standard (10 lb, foot system; 50 N, metric system) is
applied, a tension (pull) error exists.
Measurement of Distance by Taping
General Formula:
Measurement of Distance by Taping
Example: Correction for Pull/Tension Variation
Measurement of Distance by Taping
► Example:
Given a standard tension of a 10-lb force for a 100-ft steel
tape that is being used with a 20-lb force pull, if the cross-
sectional area of the tape is 0.003 sq. in., what is the tension
error for each tape length used? E = 29x
► Solution:
= = +0.011 ft, too long

Say, if a distance of 421.22 ft has been recorded under these conditions,

Total correction = 0.011 ft x = +0.05 ft.
Corrected distance = 421.22 + 0.05 = 421.27 ft
Measurement of Distance by Taping
► Example:
Given a standard tension of 50 N for a 30-m steel tape that is
being used with a 100-N force, if the cross-sectional area of
the tape is 0.02 , what is the tension error per tape length? E
= 21x
► Solution:
= = +0.0036 m, , too long

Say, if a distance of 182.716 m has been recorded under these conditions,

Total correction = 0.0036 m x = +0.022 m.
Corrected distance = 182.716 + 0.022 = 182.738 m
 Measurement of Distance by Taping
Systematic Taping Corrections
d. Sag
 If a tape has been standardized while fully supported and
is being used without full support, an error called sag will
occur as shown below. The force of gravity pulls the
center of the unsupported section downward in the shape
of a catenary, thus creating an error B´B.
Measurement of Distance by Taping
General Formula:
Measurement of Distance by Taping
Example: Correction for Sag
Measurement of Distance by Taping
Example: Correction for Sag
Measurement of Distance by Taping
Example: Correction for Sag
Measurement of Distance by Taping
Example: Correction for Sag
Measurement of Distance by Taping
Systematic Taping Corrections
e. Slope
► When distances are measured along the slope, the
equivalent horizontal distance may correspondingly be
determined by applying an approximate slope correction.
Measurement of Distance by Taping
General Formula:
Measurement of Distance by Taping
Example: Correction for Slope
Measurement of Distance by Taping
Example: Correction for Slope
Measurement of Distance by Taping
Example: Correction for Slope
Measurement of Distance by Taping
Systematic Taping Corrections
e. Mean Sea Level
► Subtracted if the line measured is above mean sea level
and added if the line is measured below mean sea level.

H = mean height of the line above

mean sea level
R = mean radius of Earth
approximately equal to 6370 km
L = measured length of the line
Measurement of Distance by Taping
General Formula:
Measurement of Distance by Taping
Example: Correction for Mean Sea Level
Measurement of Distance by Taping
Normal Tension
Measurement of Distance by Taping
General Formula:
Measurement of Distance by Taping
Example: Correction for Pull/Tension Variation
Measurement of Distance by Taping
Random Taping Corrections
► Random errors occur because surveyors cannot measure
perfectly. They cannot read tapes perfectly, cannot plumb
perfectly, and cannot set taping pins perfectly. They will
place the pins a little too far forward or a little too far back.
These errors are accidental in nature and will tend to cancel
each other somehow.
► Generally, errors caused by setting pins and reading the
tapes are minor, but errors caused by plumbing may be very
important. Their magnitudes can be reduced by increasing
the care with which the work is done or by taping along
slopes and applying slope corrections to avoid plumbing.
Measurement of Distance by Taping
Random Taping Corrections
► a. Erroneous Tape Length
These important errors must be given careful attention if
good work is to be done. For a given tape of incorrect
length, the errors are cumulative and can add up to sizable
values.
Measurement of Distance by Taping
Random Taping Corrections
► b. Temperature Variations
Errors in taping caused by temperature changes are usually
thought of as being cumulative for a single day. They may,
however, be accidental under unusual circumstances with
changing temperatures during the day and also with
different temperatures at the same time in different parts of
the tape. It is probably wiser to limit tape variations instead
of trying to correct for them no matter how large they may
be. Taping on cloudy days, early in the morning, or late in
the afternoon or using Invar tapes are effective means of
limiting length changes caused by temperature variations.
Measurement of Distance by Taping
Random Taping Corrections
► c. Slope
If tapes are not held in the horizontal position, an error
results that causes the surveyor to obtain distances that are
too large. These errors are cumulative and can be quite
large when surveying is done in hilly country. Here the
surveyor must be very careful. If a surveyor deliberately
holds the tape along a slope, he or she can correct the
measurement with the slope correction formula.
Measurement of Distance by Taping
Random Taping Corrections
► d. Sag
Sag effects cause the surveyor to obtain excessive distances. Most
surveyors attempt to reduce these errors by overpulling their
tapes with a force that will stretch them sufficiently to
counterbalance the sag effects. A rule of thumb used by many for
100-ft tapes is to apply an estimated pull of approximately 30 lb.
This practice is satisfactory for surveys of low precision, but it is
not adequate for those of high precision because the amount of
pull required varies for different tapes, different support
conditions, and so on. It is also difficult to estimate by hand the
force being applied. A better method is to use a spring balance for
applying a definite tension to a tape, the tension required having
been calculated or determined by a standardized test to equal the
normal tension of the tape.
Measurement of Distance by Taping
Random Taping Corrections
► e. Alignment of Tape
A good rear tapeman can align the head tapeman with sufficient
accuracy for most surveys, although it is more accurate to use an
instrument telescope to keep the tape on line. In some cases it is
necessary to use one of these instruments when establishing new
lines or when the tapemen are unable to see the ending point
because of the roughness of the terrain. For the latter case it may
be necessary to set up intermediate points on the line to guide the
tapemen.
Measurement of Distance by Taping
Random Taping Corrections
► f. Marking and Plumbing
Marking and plumbing errors are often the most significant of all
random taping errors. Even experienced surveyors must exercise
great care to place a plumbed mark errors are often the most
significant of all random taping errors. Even experienced surveyors
must exercise great care to place a plumbed mark accurately
within 0.02 ft of true value—in a distance of 100 ft. Horizontal
measurements, taken with the tape fully supported on the ground,
can be determined more accurately than measurements that are
taken on a slope and require the use of plumb bobs. Also rugged
terrain conditions that require many breaks in the taping process
will cause marking and plumbing errors to multiply significantly.
Measurement of Distance by Taping
TAPING PRECISION
► Below are some supposedly reasonable precision values that should be
expected under ordinary taping conditions. The average value is probably
sufficient for most preliminary surveys and the good value is desirable for
most other surveys.
Poor 1/2500
Average 1/5000
Good 1/10,000
► Taping can be done with precision much higher than 1/5000 if careful
attention is paid to the reduction of the errors discussed previously in this
chapter. Thus, by carefully controlling tape tensions, precisely measuring
tape temperatures, applying corrections, using hand levels to keep tapes
horizontal or taping along slopes, and minimizing the use of plumb bobs
but necessitating the measurement of the slopes and the application of the
appropriate corrections, the surveyor will be able to tape with precisions of
1/10,000 and better.