MICROWAVE AND OPTICAL

COMMUNICATIONS UNIT-
IV
• Optical Fiber communication is a method of transmitting
information from one place to another by sending light through an
optical fiber.
• The light forms an electromagnetic carrier wave that is
modulated to carry information
MICROWAVE AND OPTICAL
COMMUNICATIONS

Fig. Major elements in a transmission fiber optical

link
Fig: The regions of
electromagnetic
spectrum used
for radio and optical
fiber communications.
 MICROWAVE AND OPTICAL
COMMUNICATIONS

ADVANTAGES:
• Enormous Potential BW: 1013 TO 1016
Hz
• Small size & Light Weight
• Electrical Isolation
• Immunity to interference and
crosstalk
• Signal Security
• Low Tx loss
• Ruggedness & Flexibility
• Low cost
 Introduction and Optical fiber waveguides

• OPTICAL FIBER WAVE

GUIDES:
• INTRODUCTION

Figure: Optical fiber waveguide showing the core of refractive index n1,
surrounded by the cladding of slightly lower refractive index n2
• RAY THEORY
TRANSMISSION:
Velocity of light in vacuum
• Refractive Index of a medium= Velocity of light in medium
• A ray of light travels slowly in an dense medium.
• Refraction: When a ray is incident on interface between 2 dielectrics
of different RI’s [air-glass] refraction occurs.
• If a ray incident with an angle θ1 to the normal at the surface of
interface where n1 > n2 then the ray will have refraction
with θ2 to the normal.
• According to Snell’s law n1 Sinθ1 = n2 Sinθ2
• CRITICAL ANGLE:
When the angle of refraction is 900 , the refracted ray emerges parallel
to interface between dielectrics, then the angle of incident is known
as critical angle [ θC ].
n1 SinθC = n2 Sin900
𝑛2
SinθC =
𝑛1
TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION:
If the angle of incident is greater than critical angle then the light is
reflected back into originating dielectric medium which is known as
total internal reflection.
 TRANSMISSION OF LIGHT RAY
TYPES OF RAYS
If the transmitted rays are passing through fiber axis, then they are
known as MERIDIONAL rays.

If the transmitted rays are not passing through fiber axis, then they are
known as SKEW rays which follows a helical path through the fiber.

The maximum angle to axis at which external light rays may strike
the air/glass interface and may enter in to fiber in order to propagate is
referred as acceptance angle.

In optics, the numerical aperture (NA) of an optical system is a

dimensionless number that characterizes the range of angles over
which the system can accept or emit light.
NA = [n12 - n2 2 ]1/2
TRANSMISSION OF LIGHT RAY

• s
 TYPES OF FIBERS
• Based on no. of modes propagating , fibers are classified into 2 types.
• 1) Single Mode Fibers
• 2) Multi Mode Fibers
• Based on RI’s variation in core cladding region, fibers are classified
into 2 types.
• 1) Step Index Fiber
• 2) Graded Index Fiber.
• An Optical Fiber with a core of constant Refractive Index(n1)
and cladding of slightly lower Refractive Index(n2)
is known as Step Index Fiber.
• The RI profile for this types of fiber makes a step change at core-
cladding interface.
• The RI profile may be defined as
 STEP INDEX FIBERS
• SINGLE MODE SIF [SMSIF]: Which allows the propagation of
only one mode typically HE11 & hence the core diameter must be of
the order of 1.10 μm
• MULTIMODE SIF [MMSIF]: Which allows the propagation of
many modes & hence the core diameter must be of the order of
50 μm or greater.
 GRADED INDEX FIBER [GIF]
• GIF do not have a constant RI in the core, but a decreasing
core index n[r] with radial distance from a maximum value of
n1 at the axis to a constant value n2 beyond the core radius
‘’a’ in the cladding.
 GRADED INDEX FIBER [GIF]
• The rays travelling close to the fiber axis have shorter path
when compared with rays which travel in to outer regions of
the core.
• The rays travelling near region of higher RI & therefore travel
with the lower velocity than the more extreme rays.
• A similar situation exists for skew rays which follow longer
helical paths.
 PROPAGATION VECTOR/CONSTANT
• The propagation vector which gives the direction
of propagation and rate of change of phase with distance.
• If λ is optical wave length in a vacuum then
propagation
constant k=2π/ λ.
• MODES IN PLANAR GUIDE
• The planar guide is the simplest form of optical wave guide.
• It consists of a slab with RI n1 sandwiched between 2 regions
of low RI n2
• Consider a plan wave propagating in the direction of the ray
path with in the guide.
• If the RI with in the guide is n1 , the optical wave length in
this region is reduced to λ/ n1 and propagation constant is
increased to kn1
 MODES IN PLANAR GUIDE

Figure: The formation of a mode in a planar dielectric guide - a plane

wave propagating in the guide shown by its wave vector or equivalent
ray – the wave vector is resolved into components in the z and x
directions.
 MODES IN PLANAR GUIDE

• If θ is angle between the wave propagation vector & guide axis, the plane
wave can be resolved into 2 components.
• Plane wave propagates in Z & X directions.
• The component of propagation constant in Z-direction is given by βz = n1
k Cosθ
• The component of propagation constant in X-direction is given by βx = n1
k Sinθ
• The component of plane wave in x-direction is reflected at interface
between higher and lower RI media.
• When total phase change [after 2 successive reflections at the upper and
lower interfaces] is equal to 2mπ radians, standing wave will obtained.
• Interference of 2 plan waves is shown in fig.
• Interference forms the lowest order standing wave where the electric
field is maximum at the center of the guide decaying towards zero at
boundary between the guide & cladding.
 MODES IN PLANAR GUIDE

Figure: The formation of a mode in a planar dielectric

guide - the interference of plane waves in the guide
forming the lowest order mode (m = 0)
 MODES IN PLANAR GUIDE

Figure: Electric field distributions for several of the Low-order

guided mode fields in a symmetrical-slab waveguides
 THE TRANSVERSE MODES

• TE: When the electric field is perpendicular to the direction of

propagation, Ez =0, but magnetic field H is in direction of
propagation, then it is known as TE mode.
• TM: When the magnetic field is perpendicular to the direction of
propagation, Hz =0, but magnetic field E is in direction of
propagation, then it is known as TM mode.
• TEM: When both Ez & Hz are zeros then it is known as TEM
mode.
• In TEm, TMm modes, m specifies the order of mode.
 THE TRANSVERSE MODES

Figure: Physical model showing the ray propagation and the

corresponding transverse electric (TE) field patterns of three lower order
models (m=1,2,3) in the planar dielectric guide
 CYLINDRICAL MODES

• At the time of solving Maxwell's equations for planar wg, only

TE & TM modes are obtained.
• But cylindrical wg’s are obtained in 2 dimensions rather than
one. Core Cladding boundary conditions leads to a coupling
between E & H components which gives Hybrid modes.
• The hybrid modes are designed as or EHlm
HElmon whether the components of H or depending
up E make the
large
contribution to the transverse field.
Figure: Cross sectional views of the transverse electric field vectors
for
the four lowest-order modes in a step-index fiber.
 LINEARLY POLARIZED MODES [LP]
• These modes are degenerate modes.
• The propagation constant of mode pairs
HEl-1,m & EHl+1,m are
very similar.
• The superposition of these degenerative modes characterized
common propagation constant corresponds to particular LP
modes.
• The linear combination of degenerate modes forms LP
modes.
Figure: Composition of two LP11 modes from exact modes
and their transverse electric field and intensity distributions
 LP MODES
• The LP0m mode is derived from HE1m mode.
• Each LP1m modes is derived from TE0m
TM0m HE2m modes.
 LEAKAGE MODES
• These leakage modes are confined to the core region and attenuated by
continuously radiating their power out of the core as they propagating
along the fiber.
• Because of the finite radius of the cladding, some of this radiation gets
trapped in the cladding, thereby causing cladding modes to appear.
• As the core and cladding modes propagates along the fiber, mode
coupling occurs between cladding modes and higher order core modes
causes Leaky modes.
V-NUMBER [OR] NORMALISED FREQUENCY:
It is a dimensionless parameter & is defined as
v = ka[n12 – n22]1/2
where a = radius of core n1 = RI of core , n2 = RI of core,
k=Bessel function.
V-number can also be expressed in terms of NA & Δ
V = 2π a [NA] / λ
V = 2π a n1 [2 Δ]1/2 / λ
MODE VOLUME:
The total no. of guided modes or mode volume for SIF is
𝑉2
=
MS 2

For GIF MG = 𝛼 𝑉2
𝛼 +2 . 2
For α=2,
𝑉2
=
MG 4
CUT-OFF NORMALIZED FREQUENCY:
Normalized frequency at cut-off wavelength is known as cut off
normalized frequency.
VC =
2π a [NA] = 2𝜋 𝑛 1 2∆ 1/2

λ𝐶
λ𝐶
PROBLEM :
A MMSIF with a core diameter of 80μm and a RRID of
1.5% is operating at a wave length of 0.85 μm. If the core
RI is 1.48. Estimate [a] the normalized frequency for the
fiber [b] the no. of guided modes.
Ans: 75.8

PROBLEM :
A GIF has a core with a parabolic RIP which has a
diameter of 50 μm. The fiber has a NA of 0.2. Estimate
the total no. of guided modes propagating in fiber when it
is operating at a wave length of 1 μm.
 SINGLE MODE FIBERS:
The advantage of single mode propagation over
multimode propagation is that the signal dispersion
caused by delay difference between different modes may
be avoided.
• For single mode operation, only the fundamental LP01 mode
can
exist.
• For LP11 mode propagation the cut-off normalized frequency VC
= 2.405.
• For LP01 mode normalized frequency “v” should be in
range of 0 ≤ v < 2.405 as there is no cut-off for the fundamental
mode.
• “v” for the fiber may be adjusted by reduction of core
radius & RRID.
• In order to obtain single mode operation with maximum v number
of 2.4, the single mode fiber must have smallest core diameter.
• Graded Index fiber may also be designed for single mode operation.
• The V to support a single mode in a graded index fiber is given by
Vc = 2.405[1 + 2/α]1/2
• PROBLEM :
Estimate the maximum core diameter for an OF with RRID 1.5%
& core RI 1.48. Fiber is operating at wave length 0.85 μm.
Further estimate the new core diameter for single mode operation
when RRID is reduced by a factor of 10.

• PROBLEM :
Determine the core diameter for the GIF to exhibit single mode
operation when the core RI is 1.5 and wavelength is 1.3μm
respectively, with the RRID of 1.0%. Assume α=2.
 CUT - OFF WAVE
• The single mode
LENGTH:
operation only occurs above a theoretical cut-off
wave length λC given by1/2
2𝜋 𝑎 𝑛 1 2∆
=
λC  [1]
𝑉𝐶
• Cut-off wave length is a wave length above which a particular fiber
becomes single mode. 1/2
2𝜋 𝑎 𝑛 1 2∆
λ =
𝑉
 [2]

By dividing eq. 1 by λ𝐶 = 𝑉 𝐶
λ 𝑉
2. Wkt for SIF vC =
2.405 𝑉
C = λ
𝑉𝑐
PROBLEM : λ
Determine the cut-off wave length for the SIF to exhibit single
mode operation when the core RI and radius are 1.46 &
4.5μm respectively, with the RRID 0.25%.
 MODE FIELD DIAMETER:
• A fundamental parameter of a single mode fiber is Mode field
diameter [MFD].
• MFD is determined from the mode field distribution of fundamental
fiber mode, and is function of optical source wave length, core
radius & RIF of the fiber.
• In single mode fiber all the light will not propagates through the
fiber.
• MFD is used to predict the fiber properties such as splice
loss,
bending loss, cut-off wave length & wave guide dispersion.
• A standard technique to find the MFD is to measure the far-field
intensity distribution E2(r) and then calculate the MFD using

MFD =

Where 2WO = [spot size or mode field radius] full width of far field
distribution.
E2 [r]= far field intensity distribution
r= radius
Figure : Distribution of light in a single mode fiber above its cutoff wavelength. For a
Gaussian distribution the MFD is given by the 1/e2 width of the optical power

• The relative spot size [w0/a]=0.65+1.619V-3/2 + 2.879V-1

• The condition V=2.405 for single mode operation yields [w0/a]=1.1005.
 EFFECTIVE REFRACTIVE INDEX:

• The rate of change of phase of a fundamental LP01 mode

propagating along a straight fiber is determined by the phase
propagation constant β.
• β is directly related to wave length of LP01 mode.
β λ01 = 2π.
• The effective RI [or ] phase index [or] normalized phase change co-
efficient neff is defined by the ratio of propagation constant of
fundamental mode to that of vacuum propagation constant
= β/k
neff
• In normal fiber, at long wave lengths, the MFD is large compared to
core diameter & hence the electric field extends far into the
cladding region. In this case β~=n2k & neff ~= n2 . Most of the
power transmitted in cladding material.
• At short wave lengths, the field is concentrated in the core region,
β~=n1k & neff ~= n1 .
 PROPAGATION MODES IN SM FIBERS:
• In a SM fiber there are 2 independent, degenerate propagation
modes.
• These modes are very similar, but their polarization modes are
orthogonal. There may be Horizontal [H] & Vertical [V]
polarizations as shown in fig.
• Either one of 2 polarization modes constitutes the fundamental
HE11 mode.
 Figure: Two polarizations of the fundamental HE11 mode in a single mode fiber

•In actual fibers there are imperfections, such as asymmetrical lateral

stresses, noncircular cores and variations in RI profiles. These
imperfections break the circular symmetry of the ideal fiber and lift
the degeneracy of the two modes.
•The modes propagate with different phase velocities and the different
RI’s is called Fiber Birefringence.
𝐵𝑓 = ny – nx
•Equivalently we may define a β = k [ny – nx], wkt k = 2π/λ
•If light is injected into the fiber so that both modes are excited, then one
will be delayed in phase relative to the other as they propagate. When
this phase difference is an integral of 2π, the 2 modes will beat at this
point & input polarization state will be reproduced. The length over
which this beating occurs is the FIBER BEAT LENGTH
Lb = 2π
β
• Wkt β = k [ny – nx]
=k𝐵𝑓
Lb = 2π and 𝐵𝑓 = λ/Lb
𝑘𝐵 𝑓
 ATTENUATION
:
• Major role - determining the maximum transmission distance
- a transmitter and receiver-Travels along a fiber-power
decreases exponentially - distance.
• The attenuation in db/km α𝐿= 10 𝑙𝑜𝑔
10
𝑃 𝑖𝑛
𝑃 𝑜𝑢𝑡
• Defined as ratio of optical i/p power Pin to optical o/p power
Pout propagating from a fiber of length ‘L’.
• The basic attenuation mechanism in a fiber are absorption,
scattering and radiative losses.
 PROBLEM NO.:2.1
• When the mean optical power launched into an 8 km length of
fiber is 120 μW, the mean optical power at the fiber output is
3 μW.
• Determine:
• (a) the overall signal attenuation or loss in decibels through
the
fiber assuming there are no connectors or splices;
• (b) the signal attenuation per kilometer for the fiber.
MATERIAL ABSORPTION LOSSES IN SILICA GLASS FIBERS

• Material absorption is a loss mechanism related to the material

composition and fabrication process for the fiber, which results in
dissipation of transmitted optical power as heat in the wave
guide.

• Absorption is caused by 3 different mechanisms.

i. Absorption by atomic defects in the glass composition.
ii. Extrinsic absorption by impurity atom in glass materials.
iii. Intrinsic absorption by basic Constituent atoms
of the
material.
 Absorption by atomic defects
• Atomic defects are imperfections in the atomic structures. i,.e
missing molecules, high density clusters of atom groups or
oxygen defects in the glass structure.
• Radiation damages a material by changing its internal
structure.
• Damage effect depends on the energy of the ionizing particles
or rays (elctrons, neutrons, gamma rays).
• The radiation flux (dose rate ) received by material is
expressed in units of rad(Si)
• 1 rad(Si)=100erg/g = 0.01 J/Kg
• If ionizing radiation increases – atomic defects or attenuation
centres increases – attenuation increases
Absorption by atomic defects

Fig: Effects of ionizing radiation

 EXTRINSIC ABSORBTION
• Fibers are prepared by direct melt method in the presence of
impurities.
• Impurity absorption results from transition metal ions such as
iron, chromium, cobalt, copper and OH [water] ions.
• These transition metal impurities cause losses from 1 to 10db/km.
• Transition metal impurity levels were around 1part per million
[ppm] in fiber made in the 1970’s which resulted in losses ranging
from 1 to 4db/km
• These losses occur - electron transitions between the energy
levels within these ions
 EXTRINSIC ABSORBTION

• Table : Absorption losses caused by some of the more common

metallic ion impurities in glasses, together with the absorption peak
wavelength
Peak wavelength (nm) One part in 109 (dB km−1)
• Cr3+ 625 1.6
• C2+ 685 0.1
• Cu2+ 850 1.1
• Fe2+ 1100 0.68
• Fe3+ 400 0.15
• Ni2+ 650 0.1
• Mn3+ 460 0.2
• V4+ 725 2.7
 EXTRINSIC ABSORBTION

Fig. : Optical fiber attenuation – the peak & valleys

in attenuation curve- transition windows
 EXTRINSIC ABSORBTION

• By reducing OH content of fiber to below 1ppm, single

mode
fibers have nominal attenuation of 0.4db/km at 1310nm.
• Less than 0.25 db/km at 1550nm.
• Low-water-peak at 1440 nm.
MATERIAL ABSORPTION LOSSES IN SILICA GLASS FIBERS
• Intrinsic absorption is associated with the basic fiber material
[pure SiO2]. It occurs when the material is in a perfect state with
no density variations, impurities etc,.
• It results from electronic bands in near UV region & atomic
vibration bands in near infrared region.
• Electronic absorption bands – absorption occurs when a photon
interacts with an electron in v-band and exited it to a higher energy
level

• Where x = doping %
• λ = wave length
 MATERIAL ABSORPTION LOSSES IN SILICA GLASS FIBERS
• Atomic vibration band – chemical bonds between atoms in fiber -
an interaction between vibrating bond and the EM field of the
optical signal results in transfer of energy from field to bond – near
infrared region
Fig. : Attenuation
characteristics
 LINEAR SCATTERING LOSSES
• Scattering losses in glass arise
– from microscopic variations in material density,
– from compositional fluctuations &
– from structural in-homogeneities of defects occurring during fiber manufacture.
• This linear scattering mechanism causes the transfer of some or all of
the optical power contained within one propagating mode to be
transferred linearly into a different mode.
• That transfer may be to a leaky or radiation mode which does not
continue to propagate within the fiber core, but is radiated from the
fiber. Linear scattering may be categorized in to 2 types.
1) Rayleigh scattering
2) Mie scattering
 RAYLEIGH SCATTERING
• The glass is composed of a randomly connected n/w of molecules. Such a
structure normally contains either higher or lower density in glass.
• The glass is made up of several Oxides, such as SiO2, GeO2 & P2O5 causes
compositional fluctuations.
• These 2 effects [density fluctuations & compositional fluctuations] cause RI
variations which occur within the glass over distance which causes Rayleigh
scattering.
• For single component glass the scattering loss at a wavelength λ resulting
from
density fluctuations can be given
8𝜋 3 as2
(𝑛 − 1)𝑘𝐵 𝑇𝑓𝛽
𝛾𝑅 = 𝛼 𝑆𝑐𝑎𝑡 = 3λ4
𝑇
where n = Refractive Index,
kB=Boltzmann’s constant,
βT=isothermal compressibility
of material,
8𝜋 3
• Tαf=fictive
SCA
temperature.
can also expressed in term of P as 𝑆 𝑐𝛼
𝑎 𝑛8 𝑃2 𝑘 𝑇𝑓 𝛽
3λ 4 𝐵
T = 𝑡 𝑇
where P=photo elastic co-efficient.
 RAYLEIGH SCATTERING
8𝜋 3
=
• For multi component glasses the scattering is given by 𝛼𝑆 𝑐 𝑎 ∆𝑛2 2 ∆𝑉
3 λ4
𝑡

where [Δn2]2 is square of mean square RI fluctuation over a volume Δv.

• γR relation with transmission loss factor [transmissivity] of the fiber Ɫ=exp[-γR L]

where L = length of fiber .

• Attenuation due to Rayleigh scattering in db/km = 10log10[1/ Ɫ].

 PROBLEM

• Silica has an estimated fictive temperature of 1400k with an

isothermal compressibility of 7x10-11 m2N-1. The RI & photo
elastic co-efficient for silica are 1.46 & 0.286 respectively.
Determine theoretical attenuation in db/km due to fundamental
Rayleigh scattering in silica at WL of 0.63, 1.00 & 1.30μm.
Boltzmann’s constant is 1.381x10-21JK-1.
 MIE SCATTERING
• Linear scattering may also occur at in-homogeneities from non-
perfect cylindrical structure of WG, irregularities in core & cladding
interface, core-cladding RI difference along the fiber length,
diameter fluctuations, strains & bubbles.
• When in-homogeneity size is greater than λ/10, scatter intensity can
be very large & such type of scatter is called as Mie scatter. It is
mainly in forward direction.
• The in-homogeneity may be reduced by
a) removing imperfection due to glass manufacturing process
b) carefully controlled intrusion & coating of fiber
c) increasing fiber guidance by increasing RRID.
 BENDING LOSSES
• Radiative losses occurs whenever an O.F undergoes a bend of finite
radius of curvature. Fibers are subjected to 2 types of bends.

• MACROSCOPIC:
Macroscopic bends have radius that are large compare to fiber
diameter.

• MICROSCOPIC:
These bends arises when the fibers are incorporated into
cables.
 MACROSCOPIC BENDING LOSSES
• For slight bends, the excess loss is extremely small. As the radius
of curvature decreases, the loss increases expontially. Curvature
loss effects can be explained with mode field distribution.
• In mode field distribution, field tail in cladding decays
exponentially as a function of distance from core. When a fiber is
bent, the field tail on the far side of the center of curvature must
move faster to keep up with the field in the core.
• At a certain critical distance from the center of fiber the field tail
would have to move faster than the speed of light & radiates away.
• The amount of optical radiation from a bent fiber depends on the
field strength at XC & on radius of curvature R. Thus, the total no.
of modes can be supported by curved fiber is less than the straight
fiber.
 MACROSCOPIC BENDING LOSSES

Fig: sketch of the fundamental mode field in a curved optical waveguide.

 MACROSCOPIC BENDING LOSSES
• The effective no. of modes that are guided by a curved multimode
fiber of radius ‘a’
•

• where α = graded index profile,

n2=RI of cladding,
k=2π/λ wave propagation constant,
N∞=[ α/α+2][n1ka]2Δ=total no. of modes in straight fiber.
 MICRO BENDING LOSSES
• Micro bends are repetitive small scale fluctuations in radius of curvature
of the fiber axis. They are caused either by non-uni formalities in
manufacturing of the fiber or by non-uniform lateral pressures created
during the cabling of the fiber, which is known as cabling losses or
packaging losses.
• An increase in attenuation results from micro bending which causes
repetitive coupling of energy between guided modes & leaky modes in
the fiber.
• One method of minimizing micro bending losses is by extruding a
compressible jacket over the fiber.
• When external forces are applied to this configuration, the jacket will be
deformed but the fiber will tend to stay relatively straight.
• For a multimode graded index fiber having a core radius ‘a’, outer
radius ‘b’[excluding jacket], RRID Δ, then micro bending loss αM of a
jacket fiber is reduced from that of an unjacketed fiber by a factor
MICRO BENDING LOSSES
 MICRO BENDING LOSSES

where Ej, Ef are young’s modulus of jacket & fiber.

 CORE & CLADDING LOSSES

• The core & cladding have different RI’s & differ in composition.
They have different attenuation coefficients, denoted as α1 & α2
respectively.
• The loss for a mode of order [v,m] for a step index fiber is
𝛼 𝑣 𝑚 = α1 𝑃 𝑐𝑃𝑜 𝑟 𝑒 + 𝛼 2
𝑃
• 𝑃 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒
,
𝑃 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑑 are 𝑃fractional
𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑑 powers for lower modes.
𝑃 𝑃
𝑃𝑐 𝑙 �
• This can be written as 𝛼 𝑣 𝑚 = α1 + (𝛼2 − α1) �𝑃𝑑

• Forgraded index fiber: at a distance ‘r’ from core axis, the loss is
𝑛 2 (0)−𝑛 2 (𝑟)
α[r]= α1+ [α2 - α1] .
𝑛 2 (0)−𝑛 22
 DISPERSION
• The dispersion mechanisms within the fiber cause
broadening of the transmitted light pulses as they travel along
the channel.
• This causes a pulse to overlap with neighboring pulses.

• SIGNAL DISTORTION IN OPTICAL WAVEGUIDES

• After certain amount of overlap has occurred, adjacent pulses

can no longer be individually distinguished at the receiver and
error will occur.
• This dispersive property determines the limit of the
information capacity of the fiber which can be specified by
bandwidth distance product in MHz.Km.
 INFORMATION CAPACITY
DETERMINATION
• As a result of Dispersion –
• Dispersive property determines the information capacity of the
fiber.
• Information capacity – BW distance product MHz Km.
• For SIF – IC is limited to 20 MHz Km
• For GIF – properly selecting RI – 2.5 GHz Km
• SMF – high capacity than GIF
 GROUP
DELAY
• The modulated optical signal excites all modes equally at the input
end of the fiber.
• Each mode carries an equal amount of energy through the fiber.
• Each mode contains all of the spectrum components in the
wave
length band over which the source emits.
• As the signal propagates along the fiber, each spectral component
can be assumed to travel independently and to undergo a time delay
or group delay per unit length in the direction of propagation which
is given by λ2
𝜏
𝑔 1 1 𝑑𝛽
𝐿 = 𝑉𝑔 = 𝐶 𝑑 𝑘 = - 2π𝑐 𝑑 𝑘
𝑑β

• Where L= distance traveled by the pulse,

β = propagation constant, k = [2π/λ]
−1
𝑑
group velocity 𝑉𝑔 = 𝐶 β
𝑑
.
𝑘
 GROUP DELAY

• If the spectral width σλ of an optical source is characterized by its

root-mean square (rms) value σλ , then the pulse spreading can be
approximated by rms pulse width as σg 2
𝐿σ λ 𝑑β 𝑑
𝑑 𝑔 =- 2λ + λ2
𝜎𝑔 = 𝑐𝑑 σλ β
λ 2π𝑐 𝑑λ
𝑑 λ2

• The factor D = 1𝐿 𝑑 τ 𝑔 is designated as the

𝑑λ
dispersion.
• It defines the pulse spread as a function of wavelength.
 TYPES OF DISPERSIONS
• There are 3 types of dispersions.
1) Intramodal dispersion
(Material dispersion, Wave guide dispersion)
2) Intermodal dispersion
3)Polarization mode dispersion.
 MATERIAL DISPERSION
• It occurs because of
a) RI varies as a function of optical wavelength
b) various spectral components of a given mode will travel at
different speeds, depends on
wavelength.
• Material dispersion is an Intramodal dispersion effect in single mode
wave guide and LED systems which has a broader o/p spectrum than a
laser diode.
• Group Delay due to Material Dispersion 𝜏𝑚 𝑎 𝐿
=
𝐿 𝑛−λ
𝑣𝑔 𝐶 𝑑𝑛 𝑑λ
= 𝑡
• Pulse spreading due to MD is 𝜎𝑚 𝑎 𝑑 𝑐 𝑚𝑎 σ
λ
𝑡 𝑑λ
= 𝑡
= σ λ LDMAT(λ)
where DMAT(λ) is material dispersion.
• 𝐷𝑚(λ)
𝑎 = λ ( 𝑑2𝑛
2 )
𝐿𝐶
𝑡 𝑑λ
Fig.2.9: Material dispersion as a function of optical wavelength
for pure silica and 13.5% GeO2/86.5% SiO2
 WAVEGUIDE DISPERSION
• The effect of WGD on pulse spreading can calculated by assuming RI of
material is independent of wavelength. Consider the group delay in terms
of normalized propagation constant ‘b’.
�� 2 2
� −𝑛 2
• We know that ൗ�
𝑛 12 −𝑛 22
b=
• Group delay arising from WGD is 𝑤 𝑟= 𝐿 𝑑 𝛽
𝐶 𝑑𝑘
𝑔
• When a light pulse is launched into a fiber, it is distributed among
many guided modes.
• These various modes arrive at the fiber end at different times
depending on their group delay, so that a pulse spreading results.
• For MM fibers the WGD is very small compared with MD and
can
be neglected.
 WAVEGUIDE DISPERSION IN SM FIBERS
• WGD can be of same order of magnitude as a MD.
• Pulse spreading factor due to wave guide dispersion is
𝑑 𝑤
• 𝜎𝑤𝑔 = 𝜎λ 𝑐 𝑑𝑔 = 𝜎λ𝐿𝐷𝑤𝑔 (λ)
λ
𝑉
= − λ 𝜎λ 𝑑 𝑐 𝑤 𝑔 = − 𝑛 2 𝐿 ∆𝜎 λ
V
𝑑 2 𝑉𝑏

𝑑𝑉 𝑐λ
𝑑𝑉2
 INTERMODAL DISPERSION
• It is a result of different values of group delay for each individual
mode at a single frequency.
• Consider a meridional ray in step index fiber. If mode no. is high
consequently slower the axial group velocity.
• This variation in group velocities of different modes results
in a
group delay spared or internal mode dispersion.
• This dispersion mechanism can be eliminated by single mode
operations but important in multimode operations.
• The pulse broadening arising from intermodal dispersion is different
between travel time Tmax of longest ray paths and travel time Tmin of
shortest ray paths. - T 𝑛 ∆𝐿
1
σMOD = Tmax = 𝐶
min
 POLARIZATION MODE DISPERSION
• It results from fact that light-signal energy at a given wave length in a
single mode fiber occupies 2 orthogonal polarization states or modes.
• At the input of fiber 2 polarization modes are aligned. Since fiber material
is not perfectly uniform throughout its length, each polarization mode
encounters slightly different refractive indexes. Therefore each mode will
travel at slightly different velocities.
• The modes propagating with different phase velocities at different RI’s
are called FIBER BIRE FRINGENCE.

BF= 𝛽 𝑥 − 𝛽 𝑦 where βx , βy are propagation constants for slow & fast mode
𝑘
respectively.
• The propagation distance for which a 2π phase difference accumulates
between 2 modes is known as BEAT LENGTH.

• 𝐿𝑏 = λ = 2𝜋 and 𝐵𝐹 = λ/Lb
 POLARIZATION MODE DISPERSION
• The resulting difference in propagation time’s τPMD between 2
orthogonal polarization modes causes pulse spreading.
• If the group velocities of 2 orthogonal polarization modes are
Vgx & Vgy then differential time delay ΔτPMD between 2
polarization modes over a distance L is
𝐿
• ∆𝑟=
𝑃𝑀 𝐿 − ≈𝐷𝑃𝑀 𝐿 1/2
𝐷 𝑉𝑔𝑥 𝑉 𝑔𝑦 𝐷
where DPMD is dispersion due to polarization modes
measured in PSec/[Km]1/2, ranges from 0.05 to 1.0 PS/[Km]1/2.
Fig. : Polarization mode dispersion
 OVERALL DISPERSION
• The overall dispersion in multimode fibers comprises
Intramodal and intermodal terms. The total rms
both
pulse σT = [σc2 + σn2]1/2
• broadening
where σc = Intramodal or chromatic broadening [material &
wave guide dispersions] & σn = intermodal broadening caused
by delay differences between the modes.
• The pulse broadening in single mode fibers is solely due to
Intramodal dispersion as only a single mode is allowed to
propagate.
• The mechanisms giving Intramodal dispersion in single mode
fibers tend to be interrelated in a complex manner.
 PULSE BRODANING IN GIF

• Radial variation in core RI –

• Multimode propagation – large core – low inter modal dispersion –
• This combination allows – high data rates
• RI is low – outer edge – ray travel faster – center of core –
• The root mean square (rms) pulse broadening σ in a graded index
fiber is
1/2
σ= 𝜎𝑖2𝑛 𝑡 𝑒 𝑟 𝑚 𝑜 + 𝜎𝑖 𝑛 𝑡 𝑟 𝑎 𝑚 𝑜 𝑑 �
2

𝑑𝑎𝑙 �𝑙