SH5107

Industrial Ventilation

Tan Kia Tang

Veronica Chow
Veronica Ong
Principles of Airflow

Tan Kia Tang

 Scope

1. Ventilation parameters & units of measurement

2. Standard temperature & pressure (STP)
3. Air density (ρ) & density correction factor (d)
4. Static pressure (SP)
5. Velocity pressure (VP)
6. Total pressure (TP)
7. Fluid mechanic laws
8. Conservation of Mass
9. Conservation of Energy
10. Conservation of Momentum
 Ventilation & Airflow
Ventilation is movement of air through a room or building or space
by natural or mechanical means.

•The air comes from the atmosphere.

•Atmospheric air has pressure (BP) and temperature (T)

•The air density (ρ) is related to temperature and pressure.

•Airflow through a duct creates pressures (SP and VP).

•VP is proportional to V2 which is a function of air density.

•SP is the difference between the duct absolute pressure and the
atmospheric pressure.
 Types of Ventilation

1. Local exhaust ventilation – removes airborne contaminants at

the source of generation

2. Dilution ventilation – dilutes airborne contaminants

3. General ventilation – provides oxygen & thermal comfort,

reduces CO2 & removes body odors.

Natural ventilation vs mechanical ventilation

Gravity ventilation
Units & Conversion
Parameters & Units of Measurement

US Metric SI

Length ft m m

Mass lb kg kg

Temperature °F °C °K

Pressure “H20 mm H20 kPa

(“w.g.) (mm w.g.) (kN/m2)
 SI Seven Base Units
(International System of Units)

Base quantity Name Symbol

1. length meter m
2. mass kilogram       kg
3. time second s
4. electric current ampere A
5. temperature       kelvin °K
6. amount of sub mole mol
7. luminous intensity candela cd
 Conversion Factors
m ft
1 3.28
0.305 1

cm in
1 0.39
2.54 1

m/s fpm
1 197
0.00508 1

cms (m3/s) cfm (ft3/min)

1 2117
0.00047 1
 Conversion Factors

Metric US unit SI
mm H2O inch H2O psi Pa
1 0.039 0.00142 9.80
25.4 1 0.036 249
704 27.7 1 6,893
0.102 0.00402 0.000145 1
Absolute atmospheric pressure at sea level
(1 atm = 760 mm Hg)
10,335 mm 101,325 Pa
w.g. 407.2 “w.g. 14.7 psi (101.3 kPa)
Conversion Factors
Metric unit
C = 5/9 (F - 32)
US unit
F = 32 + (C x 9/5)
SI unit
K = 273 + C
K = 460 + F

P V = n x R x T(°K)
R= universal gas constant
Standard Temperature & Pressure
 Standard Conditions for Air in Ventilation

ACGIH* ASHRAE**
Temperature 70 °F 68 °F
(21°C) (20°C)

Pressure 29.9”Hg 29.9”Hg

(760 mmHg) (760 mmHg)

Relative Humidity 0% (dry air) 50%

Density 0.075 lb/ft3 0.075 lb/ft3

(1.20 kg/m3 ) (1.20 kg/m3)

* The American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists 

** The American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers

Standard Conditions for Air in Ventilation
(ACGIH STP )

Temperature (T) 21°C (70°F)

Pressure (BP) 1 atm.

(407” water, 760 mm Hg, 10,335
mm water, 101.3 kPa)
Density (ρ) 1.20 kg/m3 (0.075 lb/ft3)

Relative 0% (dry air)

Humidity

LEV system is always designed at STP

 Standard Temperature & Pressure (STP)

Standard T Standard
P
Industrial Hygiene (ACGIH) 25°C
e.g. Occupational exposure standards are (77 °F)
specified @ 25˚C, 1 atm
Ventilation Engineering (ACGIH) 21°C 1 atm
e.g. Exhaust fans are rated at 21 C, 1 atm (70 °F) pressure

American Society of Heating and Air- 20°C

Conditioning Engineers (ASHAE)
(68°F)
Physical or Chemical Science 0°C
(32 °F)
Atmospheric Pressure
(Barometric Pressure)
 Atmospheric Pressure
Not to
scale
International Space Station : 320 to 380 km

Sea level Airliner cruise altitude: 10 to 13 km

Mount Everest: 8.848 km

Earth Air column ( ~100 km)

Atmospheric pressure @ sea level = 1 atm
100 km diameter The higher the altitude, the thinner the air.
= 12,742 km
Atmosphere Mass : 5x1018 kg
50% is below 5.6 km (18,000 ft).
90% is below 16 km (52,000 ft).
99.99997% is below 100 km
 Atmospheric Pressure @ Sea Level
( 1 atm, 10.3 m or 407” water, 760 mm or 29.9” Hg)

Air column :
100 km air

Water column :
10.3 m or 407”water
Mercury column :
760 mm or 29.9”Hg

Sea Level (1 atm)

Not to
scale
Atmospheric Pressure (Barometric Pressure) @ Sea Level

760 mm Hg (torr)
29.92” Hg
407 “ fresh water (33.9 ft or
1 atm 10.3 m or 10335 mm water)
(absolute) 10 m sea water
101.3 kPa or 101,325 Pa (N/m2)
1013 hPa (hectopascal)
1.013 bar or 1,013 mb (millbar)
14.7 psi

Note : 1 atm is not exactly 1 bar Barometer

Atmospheric Pressure @ Sea Level : 101.3 kPa
Atmospheric pressure at sea level
= ρgh
= 13.6 g/cc x 980 cm/s2 x 76 cm Hg
= 1.013 x 106 dynes/cm2
= 10.13 N/cm2 (1 N = 100,000 dynes)
= 101,300 N/m2 or Pa
= 101.3 kPa or 1013 mb or 14.7 psi
Barometric or Atmospheric Pressure (BP)

BP atm = 1 atm x 2 (- altitude in ft / 18,000)

BP atm =1 atm x 2 (- altitude in m / 5,500)

US unit
BP ” w.g. = 407” w.g. x 2 (- altitude in ft / 18,000)

Metric Unit
BP mm Hg = 760 mm Hg x 2 (- altitude in m / 5,500)

SI Unit
BP kPa = 101 kPa x 2 (- altitude in m / 5,500)
Density of Air (ρ)
1m

1m
1m
1m

1m
1m
 Ideal Gas Law
PV = nRT
P = absolute pressure, atm
V = volume, litres
n = no of moles (mass / MW)
T = absolute temperature, oK
R = universal gas constant
= 0.08206 litre-atm/mole/K

R = 0.08206 litre-atm/mole/K
= 83.14 mb.m3/ (kg-mole.oK)
= 8.314 kPa.m3/(kg-mole.oK)
= 8.31 x 107 dyn.cm3/(°K.mole)
= 62,400 mm Hg.cm3/(°K.mole)
1m

1m
1m
Density Correction Factor (d)
Density of Air (ρ) at Non-STP / Density Correction Factor (d)
PV = nRT = (m/MW) RT
P = (m/V) RT/MW = ρRT/MW

P1 = ρ1RT1/MW @STP (21°C, 1 atm)

P2 = ρ2RT2/MW @non-STP
ρ1 is 1.2 kg / m3 @ STP
P1 / P2 = ρ1T1/ ρ2RT2 ρ2 is density at non-STP

T1 P2
ρ2 = ρ1 {-------x-------} = ρ1 x d
T2 P1
d is the density correction factor

Tstd BP2
d = -------x------- = d(Temperature) x d(Elevation)
T2 BPstd
Density Correction Factor
- correction for T and P

US units
460 + 70 BP (“Hg)
d = ------------ x --------------
460 + °F 29.92 “Hg
Metric units
273 + 21 BP (mm Hg)
d = ------------- x -------------------
273 + °C 760 (mm Hg)

SI units
273 + 21 BP (kPa)
d = ------------ x --------------
273 + °C 101 kPa
Barometric Pressure Correction Factor d(elevation)
US unit
BP” w.g. = 407” w.g. x 2 (- altitude in ft / 18,000)
d (elevation) = BP“ w.g. / 407“ w.g.
= 2 (- altitude in ft / 18,000)

Metric Unit
BP mm Hg = 760 mm Hg x 2 (- altitude in m / 5,500)
d (elevation) = BP mm Hg / 760 mm Hg
= 2 (- altitude in m / 5,500)

SI Unit
BP kPa = 101 kPa x 2 (- altitude in m / 5,500)
d (elevation) = BP kPa / 101 kPa
= 2 (- altitude in m / 5,500)
Air Density Correction Factor – for T & BP (Altitude)
Air Density Correction Factor – for T & BP (Altitude)
 Correction for Non-Standard Air Density

In local exhaust ventilation system design, corrections for

temperature between 4 °C & 38 °C {d (Temperature)
between 1.06 & 0.95; within about 5% change in air density}
and / or
elevation between -300 m & +300 m {d (Elevation) between
1.04 & 0.96; within about 5% change in air density}
are seldom required.

Range Air Density Correction

Temperature Between 4 and 38°C Not required
Elevation Between -300 m and +300 m Not required
Correction for Moisture & Duct Static Pressure

 Most calculations at room air conditions can ignore

moisture and duct static pressure corrections
without much error.

 However, high moisture and low duct static pressure

can reduce air density

(static pressure in a duct is the air pressure below or

above the atmospheric pressure)
.
 Density Correction
for Duct Static Pressure
 Air Density Correction Factor (d)
for Duct Static Pressure

Correction factor for SP (can be + or -)

(atmospheric pressure +/- SP)

d (SP) = ----------------------------------------
atmospheric pressure

(BP +/- SP)

= ----------------
(BP)

Atmospheric pressure @ STP is 407” water or 10,335 mm

w.g. or 101 kPa or 760 mm Hg
Atm pressure = 407”w.g. or 10,335 mm w.g. or 101.3 kPa

SP = - 5”w.g. VP
Density Correction
for Air Moisture
Air Density Correction Factor (d) for Air Moisture

Correction factor for moisture (water vapour) content

1+w
d (moisture) = --------------------
1 + (1.6 x w)

w is the specific humidity or humidity ratio measured

in:
lb of vapour / lb dry air or kg of vapour / kg dry air
En
th
al
py
57
.5
kJ
/ kg
d.
a.
100% RH
 Psychrometric Parameters

1 Dry bulb temperature (Ta) Air temperature

2 Wet bulb temperature The temperature at which liquid water, by evaporating into air can
(Tw) bring the air to saturation adiabatically at the same temperature
3 Relative humidity (% RH) The ratio of the partial pressure of the water vapour to the saturation
vapour pressure at a given temperature.
4 Absolute humidity Water vapor density or mass of water vapour / m3 of moist air

5 Specific humidity or The ratio of the mass of water vapour in a unit volume of mixture to
humidity ratio (w) the mass of dry air in the same volume; expressed as g or kg of water
vapour / kg of dry air.
6 Dew point The temperature at which a mixture of air and water vapour must be
cooled at constant pressure to initiate condensation.
7 Vapour pressure (Ps) Pressure in kPa exerted by water vapour
8 Enthalpy (E) The heat content of a mixture of air and water vapour; expressed as
BTU / lb of dry air or kilojoules / kg of dry air
9 Humid (Specific) volume Volume of moist air in m3 per kg of dry air
(ws)
 The Thermal Comfort Zone

Temperature 23 to 25C
RH 40 to 70%
Density of Air in an Exhaust Duct depends on

1. Atmospheric temperature
2. Atmospheric (barometric) pressure
3. Duct static pressure
4. Water moisture (humidity)
 Air Density Correction Factor
Air density correction factor d

d = d (temperature) x d (elevation) x d (static pressure) x d (moisture)

Tstd P2 (BPstd +/- SP) (1 + w)

= ---- x ---- x ------------------- x-------------------
T2 Pstd BPstd (1 + 1.607w)

T is measured in °K
LEV System
Typical Local Exhaust System
 Local Exhaust Ventilation System
– Components & Functions

Components Functions
1 Hood Capture, receive or contain
contaminants
2 Duct Transport contaminants
3 Air Cleaner Remove contaminants
4 Exhaust Fan & Produce the intended flow rate &
Motor overcome losses
5 Stack Discharge contaminants
 Basic Assumptions

1. Air will be considered as an incompressible fluid

i.e. density is constant (the air density will change if the air is
compressible; the volumetric flow rate will also change)
2. Air-flow will be in the turbulent range
Reynolds number Re > 4,000
3. Air is assumed to be dry (RH = 0)
- water vapour in the air stream will lower the air density
4. Heat transfer is neglected
- heat transfer inside & outside the duct will lead to changes in
air temperature & hence the volumetric flow rate.
5. Mass & volume of contaminant is ignored
- corrections for this effect should be made for significant
amount of gases or particulates
Reynolds Number
 Reynolds Number
Inertia force
Re = -------------------
Frictional force

V = average velocity
 x D2 x V2
= --------------
xDxV D = diameter

xDxV
= -------------

US units Metric & SI units
 = air density 0.075 lb/ft3 at STP 1.20 kg/m3 at STP
D = diameter ft m
V = average velocity ft/s m/s

 = viscosity 1.2 x 10-5 lb/ft-s 1.81 x 10-5 Pa.s

 Reynolds Number

Re < 2,000 laminar flow (streamline)

Re: 2,000 to 4,000 transition region
Re > 4,000 turbulent region
Laminar vs Turbulent Flow

Laminar

Turbulent

Turbulent air flow:

causes static pressure losses
affects particle transport through ductwork
affects measurement location
LEV Parameters
 Local Exhaust Ventilation – 6 Parameters

Airflow Air Duct Total Static Velocity

rate velocity cross section pressure pressure pressure

6 parameters to fully define any LEV system

Q=VxA TP = SP + VP
 Volume Flow Rate, Q = V x A

US units SI or metric units

Velocity V fpm m/s
Area A ft2 m2
Q=VxA cfm (ft3/min) cms (m3/s)
scfm scms
acfm acms

prefix s : airflow at standard conditions

prefix a : airflow at actual conditions
V = 10 m/s Q=?
Velocity Pressure
 Velocity Pressure (VP)

 Air travelling at a specific velocity creates a definite pressure i.e.

pressure exerted by moving air
 VP is considered as a kinetic energy & is in the direction of flow
 VP is proportional to velocity square (V 2) & is always positive
 VP = TP - SP
Velocity Pressure (VP) & Velocity (V)

US Unit V (fpm) = 4,005  {VP”w.g. / d}

Metric Unit V (m/s) = 4.043  {VP (mm w.g.) / d}

SI Unit V (m/s) = 1.29  {VP (Pa) / d}

Tstd BP2
d (density correction factor)=--- -- x -------
T2 BPstd

Tstd = 21 °C (70 °F)

BPstd = 1 atm or 760 mm Hg or 407”water or 101.3 kPa
VP = KE / vol of fluid
∆h = V2 / 2g
= ½ mV2 / (mg/ρ)
V = √ (2g ∆h)
= ½ ρ V /g
2

V2 = 2g VP/ρ
= 2 g ∆ha ∆ha is velocity head in ft of air
V = √ (2g ∆ha)
= √( 2 x g x ∆hw” ρw/ρa)
= √( 2 x 32.16 ft/s2 x (1’/12”) ∆hw” 998 g/l / 1.2 g/l)
= 4005 √ ∆hw”
= 4005 √VP “water
Average Velocity & Average Centerline Velocity
Average VP & Average Centerline VP

0 Vave

Vcl

Vave = 0.9 x Vcl

VPave = 0.81 x VPcl

Static Pressure
 Static Pressure (SP)

1. Pressure exerted by the air in all directions within a system

2. Forces on the walls of the duct having tendency to burst or
collapse the duct.
3. SP can be +ve (downstream side of the fan) or –ve (upstream side),
4. Resistance to airflow in a duct
5. Measured by pressure tap perpendicular to airflow
6. Can be considered as a potential energy in a ventilation system
 SP can be Positive or Negative

Upstream Downstream
SP is -ve SP is +ve

-SP +SP VP

Exhaust Fan

-SP +SP

U manometer with water

 Static Pressure

SP in a duct is the air pressure below or above

the atmospheric pressure

SP in duct = air pressure in duct – atm pressure

 Upstream SP in duct (-ve)

air pressure in duct < atm pressure

 Downstream SP in duct (+ve)

air pressure in duct > atm pressure
 Upstream SP

-1” w.g. = - 25.4 mm w.g. = -249 Pa = - 0.036 psi

 leak leak

Upstream Fan Downstream

 leak leak

Upstream Fan Downstream

 Collapse of a Flexible Duct

Do not use flexible duct at the upstream of an exhaust fan

SP in a LEV System
Static pressure is the pressure you have if the fluid isn't moving
or if you are moving with the fluid (e.g. in a LEV system). Air
would press against you equally in all directions.
 SP and VP are Convertible

Blowing balloon : VP --> SP Releasing balloon air : SP --> VP

SP and VP are Convertible

1 2 Q
SP1 SP2
VP1 VP2

Duct contraction : SP is converted to VP

1 2 Q
SP1 SP2
VP1 VP2

Duct expansion : VP is converted to SP

Gauge Pressure, Absolute Pressure, Differential Pressure
 Gauge pressure is the pressure relative to atmospheric pressure.
Gauge pressure = Static pressure

 Absolute pressure is the pressure relative to a vacuum rather than the

ambient atmospheric pressure.
Absolute pressure = Gauge pressure + Atmospheric pressure

 Differential pressure = Gauge pressure between 2 points

Total Pressure
 Total Pressure (TP)
The pressure required to move the air from zero velocity (or VP) outside the hood to certain velocity (or VP) in the duct and to overcome the resistance of airflow through the system.

TP = SP + VP
 Total Pressure (TP)
TP = SP + VP

fan

Upstream of fan Downstream of fan

TP is negative TP is positive
 Signs of SP, VP & TP

Upstream Downstream

SP -ve SP +ve

TP -ve TP +ve

VP +ve VP +ve
 Fan
A B C D
 E

A B

Air Fan
Hood
Cleaner
C
 E

A B

Air Fan
Hood
Cleaner
C
Fluid Mechanics
 Fluid Mechanics

1. Law of Conservation of Mass

(Mass Balance)
2.Law of Conservation of Momentum
(Momentum Balance)
3.Law of Conservation of Energy
(Energy Balance)
Law of Conservation of Mass

(Mass Balance Equation or

Continuity Equation)
Mass Balance or Continuity Equation

A1, V1, 1 A2,V2, 2

Volumetric Flow Rate & Mass Flow Rate
Volume Flow Rate
STP, 120˚C
Q1 = 2.5 cms Q2 = ?
Furnace
Law of Conservation of Momentum
(Momentum Balance)
 Conservation of Momentum - Momentum Balance
The law of conservation of momentum says that if no external force acts on a closed system
of objects, the momentum of the closed system remains constant.
i.e. Momentum is conserved or remains constant unless a force is applied.

min Vin mout Vout

Rate of change of momentum is the force exerted in the direction of airflow:
F = d (mv) / dt
= m {Vout - Vin}/t
if F = 0
min x Vin = mout x Vout
inAinVin2 = outAoutVout2
Law of Conservation of Momentum : Push-Pull LEV System

Momentum at push slot =

Momentum at distance (x) from
slot
moVo mxVx moVo = mxVx
x
oAoVo2 = xAxVx2
Since o = x
AoVo2 = AxVx2
QoVo = QxVx

Push – Pull LEV System Qx / Qo = Vo / Vx

Law of Conservation of Energy
(Energy Balance)
 Law of Conservation of Energy /
Bernoulli Theorem (in Fluid Mechanics)
The law of conservation of energy states that the total energy in
a closed or isolated system remains constant i.e. energy can
neither be created nor destroyed - only converted from one form
of energy to another.

Bernoulli's principle can be derived from the principle of

conservation of energy. This states that, in a steady flow, the sum
of all forms of energy in a fluid along a streamline is the same at
all points on that streamline. 
 Bernoulli’s Equation
For frictionless & incompressible fluid in a streamline
Velocity Head + Pressure Head + Elevation Head = Constant
v2/2g + p/ + z = constant
v12/2g + p1/1 + z1 = v22/2g + p2/2 + z2
For airflow in a duct, V2/2g=VP x ρ ; p = SP ; z1 and z2 can be ignored
V2
VP1/ρ1 + SP1/ρ1 = VP2/ρ2 + SP2/ρ2 p2
2
VP1 + SP1 = VP2 + SP2
z2
V1
TP1 =TP2 p1
1 z1
 Energy Balance in a Ventilation System

The total energy or pressure is constant if friction is ignored.

When friction loss occurs:
TP1 = TP2+ Losses
SP1 + VP1 = SP2 + VP2+ Losses

SP1 + VP1 SP2 + VP2

losses
Hood Static Pressure SP
 Hood Static Pressure or Static Pressure at the Hood
Hood static pressure (SPh) is the pressure required to accelerate the air from
zero velocity to certain velocity or (VP d), and to overcome the resistance at
the hood (hood entry loss or he)

ISPhI = VPd + he

This can be shown by the law of conservation of energy

 Hood Static Pressure – Simple Hood

Law of Conservation of Energy:

TP at location 1 = TP at location 2 + hood loss (he)
SP1 + VP1 = SP2 + VP2 + he
0 + 0 = SPh + VPd + he
SPh = - (VPd + he)
ISPhI = VPd + he SP2
VP2
SP1 = 0
VP1 = 0
 Design Calculations – Decimal Places
Parameter US unit Metric / SI unit
Length ft - no decimal m – 1 decimal
e.g. 5 ft e.g. 1.2 m
Area of duct ft2 - 3 decimal m2 - 3 decimal
e.g. 0.123 ft2 e.g. 0.123 m2
Velocity fpm – no decimal m/s – 2 decimal
e.g. 1234 fpm e.g. 12.34 m/s
Volumetric flow cfm – no decimal m3/s – 2 decimal
rate e.g. 1234 cfm e.g. 12.34 m3/s
Velocity pressure “wg – 2 decimal Pa – no decimal
e.g. 1.23 “wg e.g. 123 Pa
Static pressure “wg – 1 decimal Pa – no decimal
e.g. 1.2 “wg e.g. 123 Pa
Temperature F – no decimal C – no decimal
e.g. 70 F e.g. 21 C
Loss factors 2 decimal 2 decimal
e.g. 1.78 e.g. 1.78
The End