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Mapping the World

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 What is a Map Projection?

It is how we represent a 3-D Earth on a flat piece of paper

However…

The process of transferring information from the Earth to a map

causes every projection to distort at least one aspect of the real
world – either shape, area, distance, or direction.
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Any Projection distorts the
World

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What is Projections – Distortion?

Mercator
projection

Orthographic
projection

Stereographic
projection
 Any Projection distorts the World
A good projection minimizes the “distortion” of distances and
angles when measured in the real world and on your chart.

Is this a “good” map of the Earth?

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 How about this?

Infamous Peters projection of 1974 - Equal Area, True Direction

Shape (conformality) and Distance Not Preserved

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 The Answer  It depends
• A “good” map is the one that is being
successfully used for its intended purpose and
was created in a precise and accurate manner
• Always a trade-off in errors
– Shape (Conformal)
– Distance
– Area
– Direction (Local angles)

• Can only keep one or two of these accurate

• OR compromise between all four
• Errors may not be significant for small study
areas but they do exist

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 Shortest distance between two points????
Mercator Maps used as Charts in Navigation (Ships and Planes)
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 Map Projection

Flat Map
Cartesian coordinates: x,y
(Easting & Northing)

Curved Earth
Geographic coordinates: f, l
(Latitude & Longitude)
 Earth to Globe to Map

Map Scale: Map Projection:

Representative Fraction Scale Factor

= Globe distance =
Map distance
Earth distance Globe distance
(e.g. 1:24,000) (e.g. 0.9996)
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Geographic and Projected
Coordinates

(f, l) (x, y)
Map Projection
Projection onto a Flat Surface
(Three Broad Classes by Light Source)

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Types of Projections
Surfaces Used In Plane Coordinate Systems
Lambert Projection Transverse Mercator TM Projection
IMAGINARY CONE IMAGINARY CYLINDER
EARTH

EARTH A B
A B

C D 158 miles
wide

C D

East-West North-South
Conformal (preserve distances and directions within defined limits)
158 miles for 1:10,000
The Lambert projects do not lose accuracy in the east west direction.
The T M projection maintains its accuracy in the north south direction.
 Types of Projections
Equal Area: maintains accurate relative sizes. Used for maps that
show distributions or other phenomena where showing area
accurately is important. Examples: Lambert Azimuthal Equal-Area,
the Albers Equal-Area Conic.
Conformal: maintains angular relationships and accurate shapes
over small areas. Used where angular relationships are important,
such as for navigational or meteorological charts. Examples:
Mercator, Lambert Conformal Conic.
Equidistant: maintains accurate distances from the center of the
projection or along given lines. Used for radio and seismic mapping,
and for navigation. Examples: Equidistant Conic, Equi-rectangular.
Azimuthal or Zenithal: maintains accurate directions (and therefore
angular relationships) from a given central point. Used for
aeronautical charts and other maps where directional relationships
are important. Examples: Gnomonic projection, Lambert Azimuthal
Equal-Area.
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Conic Projections
(Lambert)

The lines where the

cone is tangent or
secant are the
places with the
least distortion.

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Planar or Azimuthal
(Lambert)
 Cylindrical Projections
(Mercator)
The lines where the
cylinder is tangent or
secant are the places
with the least
distortion.

Panhandle of
Alaska

Transverse

Oblique

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Mercator Projections
Project from the Centre of the Earth

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Mercator Projection
Transverse Mercator

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Transverse Mercator

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 For Any Point on the Earths Surface
True North is towards the North Pole

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 If a TM cylinder is wrapped at another
longitude, Map North follows the cylinder

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So unless you’re at the centreline of the
map, True and Grid North DON’T line up

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The True Direction of Grid North is
called the CONVERGENCE

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 Universal Transverse
Mercator (UTM)
• Developed by military
• Grid system
• Earth divided into 60 zones
• Great for small areas
– minimal map distortion
– distortion greater at edge of zones
• The most used common map
projection

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 UTM Coordinate System
• Uses the Transverse Mercator
projection
• Each zone has a Central
Meridian (lo), zones are 6°
wide, and go from pole to pole
• 60 zones cover the earth from
East to West
• Reference Latitude (fo), is the
equator.
• (Xshift, Yshift) = false easting
and northing (500000, 0) so
you never have a negative
coordinate
• Scale Factor (0.9996)
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 Universal Transverse
Mercator (UTM)
Universal Transverse Mercator- Grid

Zone 1

Equator

International Date
Line o- 180 Zone 18

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Universal Transverse Mercator

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UTM Zones

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 Summary Concepts
• To prepare a map, the earth is first
reduced to a globe and then projected
onto a flat surface
• Three basic types of map projections:
– conic
– cylindrical
– Planar/azimuthal
• A particular projection is defined by a
datum, a projection type and a set of
projection parameters

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Summary Concepts (Cont.)
• Standard coordinate systems use
particular projections over zones of
the earth’s surface
• Types of standard coordinate
systems:
– UTM
– Others too numerous to mention
• Do not confuse the coordinate system
of a set of datum for its projection

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 Egypt Coordinate Systems
Latitude & Longitude
ETM Coordinate
UTM Coordinates

UTM 36
MTM

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 Used Mapping Systems in Egypt
The British established a number of grid systems in 1929 for Helmert1906,
each Transverse Mercator Belt being designated with a different color:
Purple Belt – Central Meridian (λo) = 27ºE, Latitude of Origin (ϕo) = 30ºN,
Scale Factor at Origin (mo) = 1.0, False Easting = 700 km, False Northing
= 200 km, and South of the False Origin add 1,000 km to the northings;
Red Belt – Central Meridian (λo) = 31ºE, Latitude of Origin (ϕo) = 30ºN,
Scale Factor at Origin (mo) = 1.0, False Easting = 615 km, False Northing =
810 km and South of the False Origin add 1,000 km to the northings;
Green Belt – Central Meridian (λo) = 35ºE, Latitude of Origin (ϕo) = 30ºN,
Scale Factor at Origin (mo) = 1.0, False Easting = 300 km, False Northing =
100 km and South of the False Origin add 1,000 km to the northings.
Mapping Reference Zone No. Of Coverage of Central K0 True origin Kmax
E0, N0
system ellipsoid width zones each zone meridian location
The
intersection
1st: 25-29 26º of the
Helmert 700000, 200000 parallel of
ETM4º 4º 3 zones 2nd: 29-33 30º 1.0 1.000459
1906 615000,810000 latitude 30º
3rd: 33-37 34º and the
300000,1100000 central
meridian
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 Currently Used Mapping
Systems in Egypt
Mapping Reference Zone No. Of Coverage of Central K0 True origin Kmax
E0, N0
system ellipsoid width zones each zone meridian location
The
intersection
1st: 24-30 27 of the
UTM6º WGS84 6º 2 zones 0.9996 500000,0 1.000789
2nd: 30-36 33 equator and
the central
meridian
1st: 24-27 25.5º The
intersectio
2nd: 27-30 28.5º n of the
0.999 0.999847
MTM3º WGS84 3º zones 5 300000,0 equator
3rd: 30-33 31.5º 9 9
and the
central
4th: 33-36 34.5º meridian

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Grid Convergence

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Grid Convergence

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 The True Direction of Magnetic
North is called the DECLINATION

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With three Norths it is easy to
get confused

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But most surveys are finally
reported in Grid

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