Microscope

The science of microbiology
Thirunavukkarasu Harini
MICROBIOLOGY is the study of organisms that are so small they
cannot be seen with the naked eye. These minute organisms are
called microorganisms or microbes. These microbes are
categorized into two (1) cellular, which may either be prokaryotes
(bacteria, cyanobacteria and archeans) or eukaryotes (fungi,
protozoa and algae); and (2) acellular, which includes viruses
Microbiology is divided into: (1) bacteriology, the study of bacteria; (2) virology, the study
of viruses: (3) mycology, the study of fungi: (4) parasitology, the study of protozoa and
parasitic worms; (5) phycology, the study of algae; and (6) immunology, the study of
immune responses.Why do we need to study microbiology? The study of microbiology is
significant because of thefollowing reasons:1. About a thousand or more species of
microorganisms inhabit the human body and are collectively referred to as normal flora
(or indigenous flora), and can be pathogenic (capable of causing diseases) or non-
pathogenic.2. Some microorganisms are essential in biotechnology, eg, in the production
of foods and beverages.
3. Some microorganisms, especially bacteria and fungi, are sources of antibiotics.
4. Some microbes are saprophytes (decomposers of waste products and dead organisms).
5. Microorganisms also play important roles in certain elemental cycles (eg, the nitrogen cycle) and in
the breakdown of organic substance to release plant nutrients like nitrates and phosphates, which are
sources of fertilizers. The study of the relationship between microorganisms and the environment is
known as microbial ecology
.6. Some microorganisms are used in the production of useful substances like insulin and interferon,
through a process known as genetic engineering.
7. Some microorganisms and their products, such as toxins, are also potential biologicalwarfare agents.
Evolution of Microbiology
As many as eleven different types of fossils of primitive microorganisms have been found EVOLUTION OF
MICROBIOLOGYin ancient rock formations in Western Australia. These date back to about 3.5 billion
years ago (long before the existence of animals and humans). The most likely earliest microorganisms are
It is also known that infectious diseases have existed for thousands of years. In 3180 B.C., an the archeans
and cyanobacteria. epidemic known as "plague" broke out in Egypt. A smallpox-like disease broke out in
China in 1122 B.C. and has become a worldwide infection. In fact, the exhumed mummified remains of
Rameses V showed skin lesions that resembled smallpox. There were also earlier discoveries of the
existence of other infections like dysentery, ergotism, typhoid fever, measles, rabies, diphtheria, typhus
and syphilis..
Many individuals have contributed to the understanding of microorganisms. Among the earliest microbiologists were: His discovery
1. Robert Hooke-discovered the cell, which is the basic unit of living organisms. is heralded as The Cell Theory.
2. 2. Anton van Leeuwenhoek - created the single-lens microscope. He is called the "father" ofmicrobiology, bacteriology and
protozoology.
3. 3. Louis Pasteur-developed the process of pasteurization, which kills microorganisms in different types of liquids, and which
became the basis for aseptic techniques. He also introduced the terms aerobes and anaerobes and developed the fermentation
process.
4. 4. Robert Koch developed Koch's Postulates, a series of scientific steps that helps inidentifying the causative agent of a certain
disease (Germ Theory).
5. Edward Jenner - discovered the vaccine for smallpox.
6. Joseph Lister - applied the germ theory to medical procedures, hence the start of aseptic
surgery.
7. Paul Ehrlich-discovered Salvarsan for the treatment of syphilis. The drug is heralded the "magic
bullet" of chemotherapy (treatment of disease by using chemical substances)
8. Alexander Fleming - discovered the antibiotic penicillin from a mold called Penicilliumnotatum.
9. Hans Christian Gram-developed the Gram-staining procedure.

Types of Microscope.
Microorganisms are miniscule organisms which cannot be

seen with the naked eye. In order to alize them, a tool called
the microscope is necessary.
Microscope
A microscope is an optical instrument that can magnify microorganisms

a hundredfold or even a thousandfold. From the time Anton van
Leeuwenhoek discovered the simple microscope in the 1600s, this
optical instrument has undergone great revolutionary changes. The
following sections discuss the different types of microscope that have
evolved from van Leeuwenhoek's simple prototype.
Compound Microscope
The compound microscope is a type of microscope that contains more than one magnifying
lens. It can magnify objects approximately 1,000 times. Visible light is its main source of
illumination. As such, it also came to be known as the compound light microscope. The
compound microscope utilized today consists of two magnifying lens systems. The eyepiece(or
ocular) contains what is called the ocular lens. This has a magnifying power of 10x. The second
lens system is located in the objective, which is positioned immediately above the organism to
be visualized. Table 1.1 summarizes the basic components of a compound microscope.
Brightfield Microscope
This is made up of a series of lenses and utilizes visible light as its

source of illumination. It can magnify an object 1000 to 1500 times.
This is used to visualize bacteria and fungi. The total magnification
of an object can be calculated by multiplying the magnification of
the ocular lens with the magnification of the objective lens used.
Darkfield Microscope
This utilizes reflected light, instead of transmitted light, through a special

condenser with opaque disc that blocks the light, such that only the object is
illuminated. The object under study appears bright against a dark background.
This is used for examining living microorganisms that are either invisible under
the ordinary light microscope or cannot be stained by standard staining
methods. This type of microscope is used to view spirochetes.
Phase Contrast Microscope
Phase-contrast microscopy is based on the principle that differences in

refractive indices and light waves passing through transparent objects
assume different phases. This type of microscopy permits detailed
examination of the internal structures of the microorganism, such as
the endospores. It is also useful in the study of binary fission and
motility.
Differential Interference
Contrast Microscope
This is similar to phase-contrast microscopy, but has a higher

resolution and utilizes two beams of light instead of one. The
contrasting colors to the object under study are due to the
prisms that split the light beam.
Fluorescent Microscope
This makes use of ultraviolet light and fluorescent dyes called

fluorochromes. The object under study fluoresces against a
dark background. This is useful in the detection of antigens
and antibodies. Examples are immunofluorescence, or the
fluorescent-antibody technique.
Confocal Microscope
The specimen is stained with a fluorescent dye to make it emit

or return light. The object is scanned with a laser into planes
and regions. This is used, together with computers, to
produce a three-dimensional image. This is also used to study
the physiology of a cell.
Electron Microscope
This utilizes a beam of electrons as the source of illumination and magnets to focus the
beam It can magnify an object 10,000 times or more. It is used to visualize viruses and the
subcellula structures of a cell. The microorganism should be dead (non-living). There are
two types. Th transmission electron microscope is based on the principle that electrons
pass through the obje and are scattered. It is used to study the ultra-structures of cells and
viruses. It magnifies an obje up to 200,000 times. The scanning electron microscope gives
a three-dimensional image of t object. It can magnify an object 10,000 times.
Scanned Probe Microscope
This is used to study the molecular and atomic shapes of

organisms. It can also determine variations in temperature
inside the cell, as well as its chemical properties.
Thank you
Thirunavukkarasu Harini

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The science of microbiology

9. Hans Christian Gram-developed the Gram-staining procedure.

Microorganisms are miniscule organisms which cannot be

A microscope is an optical instrument that can magnify microorganisms

This is made up of a series of lenses and utilizes visible light as its

This utilizes reflected light, instead of transmitted light, through a special

Phase-contrast microscopy is based on the principle that differences in

This is similar to phase-contrast microscopy, but has a higher

This makes use of ultraviolet light and fluorescent dyes called

The specimen is stained with a fluorescent dye to make it emit

This is used to study the molecular and atomic shapes of

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