TOOLS FOR WORK ANALYSIS AND MEASUREMENT

Semester One- 2022

Faculty of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics
 Learning objectives
After completing this chapter, you should be able to:

• Identify and describe the different tools of quality in your own words

• Understand and explain the purpose and function of each quality tool

• Understand and explain the use of each quality tool in quality improvement

• Apply some of the tools and techniques be able to interpret the data.

Faculty of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics
 INTRODUCTION
• Many organisations experience internal and external problems eventually erode profits if
not eradicated. These problems cannot be ‘cured’ if, in the first place, the causes are not
identified.

• A lot of effort can be fruitless if symptoms are cured but the causes are not addressed.

• Tools of quality are used to identify the problems and their root causes. Once the causes
are identified, solutions can be planned and implemented by means of various quality
improvements techniques.

• Quality improvement techniques will allow quality practitioner the precision and accuracy
necessary to achieve great results on anything he or she set your mind to.

Faculty of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics
 Conti…….

• The 7 QC tools are fundamental instruments to improve the process and

product quality. They are used to examine the production process, identify the
key issues, control fluctuations of product quality, and give solutions to avoid
future defects.

• Tools that can provide accurate measurements are an essential element of any
trade profession, from carpentry  to pumbling  to stonemasonry. More than that,
though, measuring tools provide a reliable way to observe and record the world
around us.

Faculty of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics
 TOOLS OF QUALITY
There are a number of tools that an organisation can use for problem solving and process
improvement.

1. Flowcharts: is a visual representation of a process. As a problem-solving tool, a

flowchart can help investigators possible points in a process where problems occur.

2. Check sheet: is a simple tool frequently used for problem identification.

3. Histogram: can be useful in getting as sense of the distribution of observed values.

4. Pareto analysis: is a technique for focusing attention on the most important problem
areas.

5. Scatter diagram: can be useful in deciding if there is a correlation between the values
of two variables.

Faculty of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics
 Conti..

6. Control chart: can be used to monitor a process to see if the process

output is random.

7.Cause-and-effect diagram: offers a structured approach to the search

for the possible cause(s) of a problem.

8. Run charts: can be used to track the values of a variable over time.
This can aid in identifying trends or other patterns that may be occurring.

9. Failure mode, effects and critically analysis (FMECA): organisations

can determine and identify potential causes of performance failures during
the design phase of goods and services.

Faculty of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics
 FMECA
The primary objective of FMECA is to identify critical failures and probable causes of these,
with the aim of reducing them. There are basically three elements of FMECA:

Failure mode: the anticipated operational conditions are used as the background of the
study of the good or service.

Failure effect: the potential failures are studied to determine their probable effects on the
performance of the good or service.

Failure criticality: the potential failures of the various components of the good or service
are examined to determine the severity of each failure.

Faculty of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics
 QUALITY IMPROVEMENT TECHNIQUES

In this section we discuss techniques and methodologies that can be used for the improvement of quality:

Benchmarking is a process of measuring performance against the best in the same or another industry. A
benchmark demonstrates the degree to which customers of other organisations are satisfied. Once a
benchmark has been identified, the goal is to meet or exceed that standard through improvements in
appropriate processes.

Once a benchmark has been identified, the goal is to meet or exceed that standard through improvements in
appropriate processes. The benchmarking process usually involves these steps:

1. Identify a critical process that needs improvement

2. Identify an organisation that excels in the process, preferably the best.

3. Contact the benchmark organisation, visit it, and study the benchmark activity

4. Analyse the data

5. Improve the critical process at your own organisation

Faculty of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics
 Conti…..
There are four categories of benchmarking. They are:

1) Internal. Here managers look for the best practices within the organisation to compare them, and to
compare current practices over time. For example, an organisation may benchmark with all internal
laboratories to identify the best laboratory practices.

2) Functional. This involves seeking the best functional practices outside the industry. For example, if
a company is within the sugar industry and has a problem of sugar dust control, it may benchmark
with a company in the cement industry that is known to solved problems of cement dust control.

3) Generic. This involves a comparison of outstanding processes, irrespective of industry or function.

For example, a retailing benchmarking exercise for the best practices of customer service may use
a restaurant as a benchmarking partner,

4) Competitive. This requires comparisons between competitors, for example, Coca-Cola

benchmarking with Pepsi Cola for market share.

Faculty of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics
 Six-Sigma

Six Sigma is a statistical- and data-driven process that works by reviewing limit mistakes
or defects. It emphasizes cycle-time improvements while reducing manufacturing defects
to no more than 3.4 occurrences per million units or events.

The requirements for Six-Sigma projects are as follows:

• There have to be predetermined financial savings after the project is put into use.

• The project must articulate around a set of processes

• These processes must incorporate outcomes that are important to the customer

• These outcomes must be measurable and produce quantitative data

• The quantitative data must be analysed with statistical tools and improvements
suggested to reduce the variations within the process.

Faculty of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics
 Conti……

The respective projects are managed by a team of process improvement experts

who are graded as master black belt, black belt or green belt, depending on their
expertise and role in the project.

Normally, there are five phases to a six-sigma project, with each divided further into
smaller steps:

1. Define phase.

2. Measure phase.

3. Analyse phase.

4. Improve phase.

5. Control phase.

Faculty of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics
 The Deming Cycle

The Deming Cycle is also the PDCA (Plan, Do, Check, Act) cycle. This
methodology is based on the premise that improvement comes from applying
knowledge which makes processer easier, more accurate, faster, less costly, safer
and more effective to customers.

The following four fundamental questions need to be answered when this

methodology is used:

1) What are we trying to achieve?

2) What changes have to be implemented that will result in an improvement?

3) What will we know that a change has occurred after the implementation?

4) How can the change be sustained?

Faculty of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics
 Pokayoke

Pokayoke is an approach for error proofing a process. It is basically the use of devices to
prevent human error. An example is the key to a specific lock. You would need the exact
key to open that lock. In other words, there can be no human error through the use of the
wrong key, as the door will not open.

Pokayoke is focused on the following two functions:

• Preventing, by providing a warning when an error is about to be made.

• Detection, when the detect has occurred and the taking of corrective action.

Faculty of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics
 The 5S model
The 5S model is used to improve the quality of housekeeping. The benefits of good
housekeeping include prevention of defects, prevention of accidents, and elimination of
wasted time spent on looking for documents and components. Five “S” stands for the
following:

1. Sort. Remove and clear out all unwanted items.

2. Set. Arrange items so that they are easy to find and retrieve.

3. Shine. Sweep, wash, polish and keep the work area clean at all times.

4. Standardise. Make all good practices of housekeeping a habit.

5. Sustain. Create the conditions, such as rewards and other means of recognition, for
housekeeping efforts.

Faculty of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics
 RESPONSIBILITY FOR QUALITY

It is true that all members of an organisation have some responsibility for quality, but certain parts of
the organisation are key areas of responsibility:

1. Top management: top management has the ultimate responsibility for quality. Top management
must institute programs to improve quality; guide, direct, and motivate managers and workers;
and set an example by being involved in quality initiatives. Examples include taking training in
quality, issuing periodic reports on quality, and attending meetings on quality.

2. Design: Quality products and services begin with design. This includes not only features of the
product or service; it also includes attention to the processes that will be required to produce the
products and/ or the services that will be required to deliver the service to customers.

3. Procurement: The procurement department has responsibility for goods and services that will not
detract from the quality of the organisation’s goods and services.

Faculty of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics
 Conti….

4. Production/operations: Production/operations has responsibility to ensure that processes yield products

and services that conform to design specifications.

5. Quality assurance: Quality assurance is responsible for gathering and analysing data on problems and
working with operations to solve problems.

6. Packaging and shipping: This department must ensure that goods are not damaged in transit, that
packages are clearly labelled, that instructions are included, that all parts are included, and that shipping
occurs in a timely manner.

7. Marketing and sales: This department has the responsibility to determine customer needs and to
communicate them to appropriate areas of the organisation.

8. Customer service: Customer service is often the first department to learn of problems. It has the
responsibility to communicate that information to appropriate departments, deal in a reasonable manner with
customers, work to solve problems, and follow up to confirm that the situation has been effectively remedied.

Faculty of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics
Process Reengineering
• Reengineering is the fundamental rethinking and radical redesign of processes to improve
performance dramatically in terms of cost, quality, service, and speed.

• Process reengineering is about reinvention rather than incremental improvement. It is

strong medicine and not always needed or successful.

• Pain, in the form of layoffs and large cash outflows for investments in information
technology, almost always accompanies massive change. However, reengineering
processes can have big payoffs. Table 1 lists the key elements of the overall approach.

• Reengineering has led to many successes and will continue to do so. However, it is not
simple or easily done, nor is it appropriate for all processes or all organisations.

• The best understanding of a process, and how to improve it, often lies with the people who
perform the work each day, now with cross-functional teams or top management.

Faculty of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics
 Process Improvement

Process improvement is the systematic study of the activities and flows of each
process to improve it. Its purpose is to “learn the numbers,” understand the process, and
dig out the details. Once a process is really understand, it can be improved.

Table 1: Key elements of reengineering

Element Description
Critical processes The emphasis of reengineering should be on core business processes.

Strong leadership Senior executives must provide strong leadership for reengineering to be
successful.
Cross-functional teams A team, consisting of members from each functional area affected by the process
change, is charged with carrying out a reengineering project.
Information technology Information technology is a primary enabler of process engineering.

Clean-slate philosophy Reengineering requires a “clean slate” philosophy- that is, starting with the way the
customer wants to deal with the company.
Process analysis The team must look at every procedure involved in the process throughout the
organisation.

Faculty of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics
Process Analysis

• Process analysis is the documentation and detailed understanding of how work

is performed and how it can be redesigned. Looking at the strategic issues can
help identify opportunities for improvement.

• Do gaps exist between a process’s competitive priorities and its current

competitive capabilities?

• Do multiple measures of cost, top quality, quality consistency, delivery speed,

and on-time delivery meet or exceed expectations? Is there a good strategic fit
in the process? If the process provides a service, does its position on the
customer contact match up with process structure, customer involvement,
resource flexibility, and capital intensity?

Faculty of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics
 Service blueprint

• A Service blueprint is a special flowchart of a service process that shows steps have
high customer contact. It uses a dotted line of visibility to identify which steps are
visible to the customer (and thus are more of a front-office process) and those that
are not (back-office process).

Faculty of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics
 Quality Circles

• One way companies have tapped employees for ideas concerning quality improvement is
through quality circles.

• Quality circles are usually less structured and more informal than teams involved in
continuous improvement, but in some organisations quality circles have evolved into
continuous improvement teams.

• Quality circles have had very little authority to implement any but minor changes;
continuous improvement teams are sometimes given a great deal of authority.

Faculty of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics
 Brainstorming

• Brainstorming is a technique in which group of people share thoughts and ideas

on problems in a relaxed atmosphere that encourages unrestrained collective
thinking.

• The goal is to generate a free flow of ideas on identifying problems, and findings
causes, no single member is allowed to dominate sessions, and all ideas are
welcomed.

• Structured brainstorming is an approach to assure that everyone participates.

Faculty of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics
 SUMMARY

• In this chapter, we explained the various quality tools, such as flow charts, run
charts, control charts, check sheets, histograms, Pareto analysis, cause-and-
effect diagrams, scatter diagrams and FMECA. All these tools are used to try to
identify possible causes of quality problems.

• We then discussed and illustrated some of the quality improvement techniques,

such as benchmarking, the Deming cycle, use of Pokayoke, and the 5S model.

• Some of these tools are very easy to use, while others require substantial input
in the form of training and expert intervention.

Faculty of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics
END

Faculty of Science
Department of Mathematics and Statistics