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Lecture 3

Tension members – Behavior and design of tension members of timber


structures. Compression members – Column design: effects of residual
stresses and initial imperfections, effective lengths of columns and
slenderness, design compression resistance. Compression perpendicular
to the grain
Member Axes
• first of all, we will manage members, which areassumed to be
subjected to stresses in the direction of only one of its principal axes.
• Direction of axes on Figure below:
Tension parallel to the grain
• Tension members generally have a uniform tension field
throughout the length of the member, and the entire cross
section, which means that any corner at any point on the
member has the potential to be a critical location.

• The inhomogeneities and other deviations from an ideal


orthotropic material, which are typical for structural timber,
are often called defects. As just mentioned, these defects will
cause a fairly large strength reduction in tension parallel to the
grain. For softwood (spruce, fir) typical average value are in
the range of f 0, t = 10 to 35 N/mm2.
Tension parallel to the grain
• In EC5 the characteristic strength values of solid timber are related to a
width in tension parallel to the grain of 150 mm. For widths in tension
of solid timber less than 150 mm the characteristic values may be
increased by a factor kh .

• For glulam the reference width is 600 mm and, analogously, for widths
smaller than 600 mm a factor kh should be applied.
Tension parallel to the grain
For long boards under uniaxial tension due consideration should be taken both of the size
effect (length effect) and of the lengthwise variation of the tensile strength.
Tension parallel to the grain
• The following expression shall be satisfied:

σ t ,0,d ≤ f t,0,d
where
σ t ,0,d is the design tensile stress along the grain;
ft,0,d is the design tensile strength along the grain.
Tension perpendicular to the grain
• The lowest strength for timber is in tension perpendicular to
the grain.

• In timber members tensile stresses perpendicular to the grain


should be avoided or kept as low as possible.

• The effect of member size shall be taken into account.


Compression parallel to the grain
• At the ultimate limit state, the compression
member will have achieved its compressive
capacity whether limited by material crushing (see
Figure) or buckling. In contrast to the brittle,
explosive failure of tension members, the
compression failure is quiet and gradual. Buckling is
quite silent as it is not associated with material
failure at all, and crushing is accompanied by a
“crunching or crackling” sound. However, in spite of
the silence of failure, any structural failure can lead
to loss or at least partial loss of the structural
system and place a risk on human life. Both modes
of failure are just as serious as the more dramatic
tensile and bending failures. Figure. Failure mechanisms in compression
Compression parallel to the grain
• The following expression shall be satisfied:

σ c ,0,d ≤ f c,0,d
where
σ c ,0,d is the design compressive stress along the grain;
fc,0,d is the design compressive strength along the grain.

Rules for the instability of members are given below.


Compression perpendicular to the grain
• Bearing capacity either over a support or under a load
plate is a function of the crushing strength of the wood
fibre. Where the bearing capacity is exceeded, local
crushing occurs.
• This type of failure is quite ductile, but in some cases, fibre
damage in the region of a support may cause flexural
failure in that location.
• The bearing capacity is a complex function of the bearing
area. Where the bearing does not completely cover the
area of timber, testing has shown a considerable increase
in bearing capacity. This is known as an “edge effect”.
Figure shows bearing failure under heavily loaded beams.
• The influence of growth defects on the strength
perpendicular to the grain is small.
Figure. Bearing effects at supports and points
of concentrated load application
Compression perpendicular to the grain
• The following expression shall be satisfied:

σ c ,90,d ≤ k c,90 f c,90,d


where
σ c ,90,d is is the design compressive stress in the contact area
perpendicular to the grain;
fc,90,d is the design compressive strength perpendicular to the grain;
k c,90 is a factor taking into account the load configuration, possibility of
splitting and degree of compressive deformation.
Compression perpendicular to the grain
• The value of kc,90 should be taken as 1,0, unless the member
arrangements in the following paragraphs apply. In these cases the
higher value of kc,90 specified may be taken, up to a limiting value of kc,90
= 4,0.

• NOTE: When a higher value of kc,90 is used, and contact extends over
the full member width b, the resulting compressive deformation at the
ultimate limit state will be approximately 10 % of the member depth.
Compression perpendicular to the grain
• For a beam member resting on supports (see Figure below), the factor
kc,90 should be calculated from the following expressions:
• When the distance from the edge of a support to the end of a beam a, ≤ h/3:

• At internal supports:

• where:
• l is the contact length in mm;
• h is member depth in mm.
Compression perpendicular to the grain
• For a member with a depth h ≤ 2,5b where a concentrated force with
contact over the full width b of the member is applied to one face
directly over a continuous or discrete support on the opposite face, see
Figure on next slide, the factor kc,90 is given by:

• where:
• lef is the effective length of distribution, in mm;
• l is the contact length, see Figure on next slide, in mm.
Compression perpendicular to the grain

Determination of effective lengths


for a member with h/b £ 2,5,
(a) and (b) continuous support,
(c) discrete supports

NOTE: For other limitations and conditions of determining


the value of kc,90 , please refer to EC5.
Stability of members
When a slender column is loaded axially, there exists a tendency for
it to deflect sideways (see Figure). This type of instability is called
flexural buckling. Whenever a slender structural element is loaded
in its stiff plane (axially in the case of the column) there is a
tendency for it to fail by buckling in a more flexible plane (by
deflecting sideways in the case of the column). The strength of
slender members depends not only on the strength of the material
but also on the stiffness, in the case of timber columns mainly on
the bending stiffness. Therefore, apart from the compression and
bending strength, the modulus of elasticity is an important material
property influencing the load-bearing capacity of slender columns.
The additional bending stresses caused by lateral deflections are Two-hinged column
taken into account in a stability design. buckling in compression
Stability of members. Assumptions
• The bending stresses due to initial curvature, eccentricities and
induced deflection shall be taken into account, in addition to those
due to any lateral load.

• Column stability and lateral torsional stability shall be verified using


the characteristic properties, e.g. E0,05
Columns subjected to either compression
or combined compression and bending
• The relative slenderness ratios should be taken as:

where:
λy and λ rel,y are slenderness ratios corresponding to bending about the y-axis (deflection in the
z-direction);
λ z and λ rel,z are slenderness ratios corresponding to bending about the z-axis;
E0,05 is the fifth percentile value of the modulus of elasticity parallel to the grain.
Slenderness. Recall
The slenderness ratio is defined as the effective buckling length of the member,
le, divided by the radius of gyration, i, of the cross section:

where the radius of gyration about an axis ,


I is the second moment of area, and A is the cross-sectional area of the member.

Effective buckling length l e for different end conditions. l is actual column length.
Columns subjected to either compression
or combined compression and bending
• Where both λ rel,z ≤ 0,3 and λ rel,y ≤ 0,3 the member is “short”, thus the stresses
should satisfy the expressions :

• In all other cases the stresses, which will be increased due to deflection,
should satisfy the following expressions:
Columns subjected to either compression
or combined compression and bending
The symbols are defined as follows:

where:
bc is a factor for members within the
straightness limits:
0,2 for solid timber
0,1 for glued laminated timber and LVL

km factor, which makes allowance for re-


distribution of stresses and the effect of
inhomogeneities of the material in a cross-
section. It will be described in next lecture.
Typical graph showing the strength reduction in a structural
timber compression member as
a function of the slenderness ratio.

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