CHAPTER THREE

THE TOPOGRAPHY OF ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN

The topography of Ethiopia is largely determined by the geologic

activities of the Cenozoic Era.

The uplifting of the Arabo-Ethiopian land mass
The outpouring, spreading and thick accumulation of Trapean lava
have given rise to an outward sloping highland plateau and
mountains.
Major faulting resulted in division of the plateau into two broad units
Faulting elsewhere guided part of the course of some rivers
lakes were created on formed depressions
river dissection and roughening on the highlands, and deposition on the
lower areas
 General Characteristics of the Ethiopian Physiography
 The Ethiopian landform is
characterized by great diversity.
 There are flat-topped plateaus, high
and rugged mountains, deep river
gorges and vast plains.
 Altitude ranges from 125m.b.s.l
(Kobar Sink) to highest mountain
(Mount Ras Dashen- 4,620 m.a.s.l).
 The altitudinal range in Ethiopia is
about 4620m- (-125m)= 4745m.
 Ethiopia has the largest proportion
of elevated landmass in the African
continent.
 Ethiopian Highlands form the
largest continuous area of its
elevation in the continent.
 Described as the Roof of East Africa
because of its height and large area.
 Proportion of Ethiopian land above
1,000 m of is 56% of the total area.
 Proportion of land above 1,500 m is
about 44% of the country. Half of
this is more than 2,000 m.a.s.l.
Most of the Ethiopian Highlands are

part of the central and northern

Ethiopia.
The highland core is encircled by semi-

arid and lowlands.

Ethiopian Highlands are rugged mass of

mountains dissected by several rivers and

ravines which have cut deep gorges.

The high plateau and mountain ranges are

sources of many rivers and streams that

made the country the “Water Tower of

East Africa”.
 Highlands make up nearly
56% of the area of Ethiopia.
 The remaining 44% of the
area of Ethiopia is lowland.
 Highlands subdivided into:
 lower highland (1,000-
2,000m.a.s.l), which make up
35%
 higher highland (>2,000
m.a.s.l) constituting nearly
22%.
• Diversity in topography is
accompanied by differences :
 in natural features (soil,
climate, vegetation and wild
life)
 in the socio-cultural and
economic phenomena.
Contrasting features between the Ethiopian highlands and lowlands
(by taking the 1,000 m for demarcation)
Features of Ethiopian highlands Features of Ethiopian lowlands
Moderate and high amount of Fewer amounts of rainfall
rainfall. Higher temperature
Lower mean annual temperature (<20
High prevalence of tropical
C).
diseases
The climate is favorable for biotic life.
Vast plain lands favorable for
 Rain-fed agriculture is possible.
irrigation agriculture
 Free from tropical diseases.
Lower population densities.
 Attractive for human habitation and
Pastoralist and semi-pastoralist
densely settled.
economic life
 The Physiographic Divisions of Ethiopia
• Following the geologic processes of
the Cenozoic Era, three major
physiographic units can be identified
in Ethiopia. These are:
a) The Western highlands and lowlands
b) The South-eastern (Eastern)
highlands and lowlands
c) The Rift Valley
 1. The Western Highlands and Lowlands
 Includes all area west of the Rift Valley
 It extends from northern most point of
Tigray to the Ethio-Kenya boarder in
the south.
 Westward, the land gradually descends
in altitude and merges into western
foothills and lowlands.
 It makes up about 44% of the area of
the country.
• This region is further subdivided into
four groups of highlands (76.3%) and
four groups of lowlands (23.7%).
 The Western Highlands
a) The Tigray Plateau
• Made up of highlands of Tigray.

• It extends from the Tekeze gorge

in the south to the central
Eritrean highlands.
• The Tigrian plateau is separated
from the Eritrean plateau by the
Mereb River.
• It lies to the southeast of the
upper course of the Mereb River
and to the northeast of Tekeze
River Gorge.
• It constitutes about 13% of the area of the
region.
• It is an elongated highland with most of the
land being between 1,000 and 2,000 m.a.s.l
• This plateau is drained by the right bank
of the tributaries of Tekeze .
• Long period of denudation has created
residual features of granite hills, rugged
topography, and Ambas.
• High mountains -(Mount Tsibet (3988
m.a.s.l), Mount Ambalage (3291 m.a.s.l),
Mount Assimba (3248 m.a.s.l).
• Debre-Damo monastery , a tableland that
can only be climbed by a rope pulley is also
located in this plateau region.
 b. North Central Massifs

•It is the largest in the western highlands.

•Much of its northern and southern limit

follows the Abay and Tekeze gorges.

•The Abay, Tekeze and their tributaries have

cut into this region a maze of gorges,

steep sided river valleys, dividing the land

into many isolated plateau blocks,

tablelands and other rugged surface forms.

•Much of these plateau and tablelands are still

capped by the Trappean lava.

• It contains Lake Tana basin
surrounded by plains of Fogera and
Dembia in the north and an upland
plain in the south.
• It consists of the Gonder, Wello and
Gojjam Massifs.
• 58% of the region is at an altitude
>2,000 m, making it the second
highest physiographic division.
• Out of the 26 mountain peaks with
altitude of more than 4,000 m.a.s.l in
Ethiopia, 19 mountain peaks are
found in this physiographic region.
• The most popular ones include

- Mount Ras Dashen (4,620 m.a.s.l),

Mount Weynobar/Ancua (4462
m.a.s.l), Mount KidusYared (4453
m.a.s.l), and Mount Bwahit (4437
m.a.s.l) in the Simen Mountain
System.
- Mount Guna (4,231m.a.s.l) in the
Debre Tabour Mountain System,
Abune Yoseph (4,260 m.a.s.l) in the
Lasta highlands of Wello and Mount
Birhan (4,154 m.a.s.l) in the Choke
Mountain System in Gojjam.
• These mountains have steep cliffs
and rugged terrain that provide
scenic views to climbers.
• The Mountain systems in Gonder
and Gojjam are separated from
the eastern group of mountains
in Wello by impenetrable and
deep gorges.
• At one point, they are
connected by Yeju Wadla
Delanta land bridge (ridge).
• This land bridge has been
significant in history. It served
as a route of penetration by the
Turks, Portuguese, and Italians.
• Tekezze River has divided
the North Central Massif
area into western and
eastern massifs, which are
connected by the Yejju-
Wadla-Dilanta plateau.
• The western massifs make
up the massifs of South
Gondar (Semein), while
the eastern ones make up
the Wollo Massifs.
• South of these is found the
Gojjam Massif.
C. The Shewa Plateau/Central highlands

• It is bounded by the Rift Valley in the

east and southeast, by the Abay gorge in

its northern western limit, and Omo

gorge in the south west.

• It occupies a central geographical

position in Ethiopia.

• It is the smallest of the Western

highlands (11%).
• It has the largest proportion of
elevated ground- nearly ¾ of its area is
at an altitude of >2,000 m.as.l.
• It is drained outward in all directions
by the tributaries of Abay, Omo, and
Awash and forms a water divide/water
shade b/n these three river basins.
• The tributaries of Abay are Guder,
Muger, Jema etc. have cut deep gorges
and steep sided river valleys.
• The tributaries of Omo and Awash have
dissected the other sides of the plateau.
• The highest mountains in the Shewan
plateau are Mount Abuye-Meda (4,000
m.a.s.l) in Northern Shewa, Mount
Guraghe (3,721 meters) in the south .
• D. The South Western Highlands

• It consists of the highlands of Wellega,

Illuababora, Jimma, Kaffa, & Gamo and
Gofa.
• The region is separated from the
adjacent highlands by the Abay and Omo
river valleys.
• It extends from the Abay gorge in the
north to the Kenya border and Chew
Bahir in the south.
• It accounts for about 22.7% of the area
of the region. It is the second largest in
the Western highlands.
• About 70% of its area is lies
within 1,000-2,000 m.a.sl.
• It is the wettest region in
Ethiopia.
• It is drained by Dabus,
Deddessa (tributaries of Abay),
Baro, Akobo and the
Ghibe/Omo rivers.
• It is the most dissected and
rugged terrain of the country
b/c of the numerous streams.
• Guge Mountain is the highest
peak(4,200 m.a.s.l)
• Its drainage system accounts nearly half of the total
volume of water drained annually from the country.
• The highest forest coverage of the country is found in this
region.
• Unlike the other Western Highlands, this region is:
• The largest producer of coffee, spices, tea plantation
(Wushwush, Limu & Gumero), timbering, rubber trees
and other forest produces like honey
• The dwelling home for various ethnic groups
• Known for substantial livestock production .
• The Western Lowlands
• These are the western foothills and
border plains that extend from
Western Tigray in the north to
southern Gamo-Gofa in the South.
• Extends from Tekeze basin in the
north to the Omo basin in the south
along the Ethio-Sudan/South Sudan
borders.
• In certain places, ridges or part of
the highlands protrude into the
lowlands, interrupting their
continuity.
• They make 23.7% of the area of
the physiographic region.
• The general elevation ranges
between 500 and 1000 meters above
sea level.
• It is further subdivided into four by the protruding ridges.
• These are Tekeze lowland, the Abay-Dinder lowland, the Baro
lowland, and the Ghibe lowland from north to south.
• Since one or two rivers cross all of these lowlands, irrigation
agriculture is highly feasible. For example, the Baro lowland has
an extensive flat area suitable for mechanized agriculture.

• Except the Baro lowland, the western lowlands are characterized by

arid & semi-arid climate.
• As one moves northwards, the degree of aridity increases,
making rain-fed agriculture more difficult.
• Pastoral or semi-pastoral economic activities dominate the area.
•The Ghibe/Omo lowland (the lower Ghibe/Omo Valley and the

northern Turkana basin), is classified in the Western lowlands

from its geographical location but structurally it also belongs to

the Rift Valley.

•It is an area which is both faulted and tectonically depressed.

•In the Western lowlands, there are small but important towns to

agriculture, history, or are simply border towns and frontier ports.

•These are Humera, Metema, Omedla, Kurmuk, Gambella etc.

 2. The South Eastern Highlands and
Lowlands
• It is the second largest in terms of area.
• It accounts for about 37% of the total
area of Ethiopia.
• The highlands make up 46% of the
physiographic division while the rest is
lowland.
• The eastern escarpment of the Rift
Valley makes the western and the
northern limit.
• These are further subdivided into two
units of highlands and two units of
extensive lowlands.
• From here, the land gradually descends southeastward into the
southeastern lowlands and then to the plains of Somalia.
The South Eastern Highlands
A. The Arsi-Bale-Sidama Highlands
• These highlands are found to the east of the Lakes Region
• They are located in the south western section of the physiographic
region.
• They make up 28.5% of the area of the region and 62% of the south -
Eastern Highlands.
• The Arsi Highlands are made up of flat rolling uplands and dissected
mountains.
•Highest mountains - Mount Kaka (4,180

m.a.s.l), Mount Bada (4,139 m.a.s.l) and

Mount Chilalo (4,036 m.a.s.l).

•The highest mountain peaks in this region

are Tulu-Demtu (4,377 m.a.s.l) and Mount

Batu (4,307 m.a.s.l).

•The Afro-Alpine summit of Senettie plateau

is found on the Bale highland.

•Erosion features belonging to Pleistocene

glaciation but later modified by fluvial

processes are seen in the trough-like gorges,

hanging valleys, and depressions.

• The Bale highlands are separated
from the Arsi highlands by the head
and main stream of Wabishebelle.
• Significant for the growth of cool-
climate industrial crops such as wheat
and barely on large scale agribusiness
• The Sidama Highlands are separated
from the Bale Highlands by the
Ghenale river.
• They occupy the southwestern
corner of this region.
• Jemjem plateau is the prominent
feature in the region.
• It is an important coffee growing
area.
• The highest quality coffee in Ethiopia is produced in this region.
• Peak points are Mts. Dello (3600m) in Guji & Guramb (3400m).

• Inset/kocho is the staple food in the region.

• Rivers Wabishebelle and Ghenale along with their tributaries have
dissected this physiographic region.
• Specially, Weyb River, tributary of Ghenale, has cut an underground
passage (Sof Omar cave) through the Mesozoic Limestone rocks.

B. The Hararghe Plateau

• It extends from the Chercher highlands in the south-west to Jigjiga in
the east.
• It makes up 38% of the South Eastern highlands and 17.4% of the
whole physiographic region.
• It has the smallest proportion of upper highland(>2,000 m.a.s.l).
• It is a low lying and elongated region.
• The left-bank tributaries of Wabishebelle drain it.
• Much of the Trappean lava is removed and the Mesozoic rocks
are extensively exposed.
• The highest mountain here is Mount Gara-Muleta (3,381 m.a.s.l).

C. The Southeastern Lowlands

• Located in the southeastern part of the country and they are the
most extensive lowlands in Ethiopia.
• They make up 54% of the area of the physiographic region and
around one-fifth (20%) of the country.
• They include the plains of Ogaden, Elkere, and Borena.
• Extensive plains are interrupted by low hills, low ridges, inselbergs
and by shallow and broad river valleys and depressions.
• Mainly covered by Mesozoic Era sedimentation
• Have an average altitude is between 500-1000m

• Sparsely inhabited by pastoral and semi-pastoral communities.

• The economic potential for this region includes:

– animal husbandry (large livestock population), irrigation

agriculture, exploitation of petroleum and natural gas
• Its sub-divisions are two:
• Wabe-Shebelle lowland- Covers about 60% of the Eastern
Lowlands.
– Parts of Somali region and Eastern Hararghe are drained by
Wabe-Shebelle river and its tributaries
– Known for cattle, sheep, goat and camel husbandry.

• Ghenale Lowland- Covers about 40% of the Eastern Lowlands.

– Comprises parts of Borena and Guji lowlands which are drained
by Ghenale river & its tributaries.
– Known for the highest quality and quantity cattle & other domestic
animals production areas of Ethiopia.
3. The Rift Valley Physiographic
Region
– It is a tectonically formed structural
depression.
– It separated the Ethiopian Highlands
and Lowlands in to two.
– Bounded by two major and more or
less parallel escarpments.
– It covers 18% of the area of Ethiopia.
– In the Afar Triangle, it is the widest
and narrows down to the south.
– Has a funnel shape, widening at
Northeast and narrowing the
Southwest orientation.
– Altitude in the floor ranges from 125
m.b.s.l at Dallol Depression, to as
high as 2,000 m.a.s.l in the Lakes
region.
•Because of its altitudinal variation and

positional differences;

the climate also varies from warm, hot and

dry to cool and moderately moist

conditions.

the social and economic life reflects this

pattern (places sparsely inhabited by

pastoralists and people practice some rain-

fed agriculture).
•Rift Valley is subdivided into 3
physiographic sub-regions.
•These are the Afar Triangle, the Main
Ethiopian Rift valley , and the Chew Bahir
Rift.
 i. The Afar Triangle
 It is the largest and widest part of
the Rift Valley. It makes up 54%
of the Rift Valley area.
 It is bounded by the high
western and eastern
escarpments in the west and
east respectively, and by the
Afar Horst in the northeast.
 The area is generally of low
altitude (300-700 meters).
 Its elevation drops uniformly from
approximately 1,000 meters in the
southwest to below sea level in
the north (Danakil depression).
• It hosts one of the most hostile
environments on Earth (Max
temp >50°C during summer wet
season in Dallol).
• The area is characterized by
• The Denakil Depression (Kobar
Sink).
• Lakes (Abe, Asale, and Afdera)
occupy some of these basins.
• Thick and extensive salt plain
• It has a colorful landscape, fault
depression and active volcanoes ,
which make it one of the tourist
attraction sites in Ethiopia.
• The Afar Triangle is generally
hot and dry. Only its southern
part gets water from Awash.
• The economic importance of
this region includes
• salt extraction, irrigation along
the Awash River, electric
potential from geothermal
energy.
ii.The Main Ethiopian Rift/Central Rift
• This part of the Rift Valley is the
narrowest belt and the highest.
• It has an average width of 50-80
kilometers and general elevation of
1,000-2,000 meters above sea level.
• Extends from Awash River in the
north to Lake Chamo in the south.
• It is bounded by the western and
eastern escarpments.
• The prominent features are the
numerous lakes formed by fault
depressions.
• The floor in many places is
dotted by cinder cones and
volcanic mountains- Mount Fentale,
Boseti-guda (near Adama), Aletu
(north of Lake Ziway) and Chebi
(north of Lake Hawasa).
• Because of altitude, the lakes region of
the Main Ethiopian Rift is generally
milder and watery.
• Here rain-fed agriculture is practiced.
• Other resource bases include
– recreational value of the lakes,
agricultural importance of some
streams and lakes, the geothermal
energy potential.
iii. The Chew Bahir Rift
• It is the smallest and the southern-most
part of Rift Valley.
• Highlands of Konso and the surrounding
highlands separate it from the Main
Ethiopian Rift to the north.
• It is the broad and shallow depression,
which is a marshy area covered by tall
grass, into which the Segen and Woito
streams empty.
 Impacts of Relief on Biophysical and Socio- economic Conditions
Agricultural practices
• Choice of farming techniques- in rugged terrain mechanized farming
techniques are difficult to practice.
• Crop production- some corps (barley, wheat) are well adapted to
higher altitudes and others to low altitude (sorghum, maize).
• The practice of animal husbandry- most horses and sheep are reared in
the higher altitudes and camels and goat are well adapted to lower
altitudes.

Settlement pattern
• The highlands of Ethiopia are characterized by sedentary life and
permanent settlements while lowlands that are inhabited by pastoralists
have temporary settlements.
• Highlands of Ethiopia that
experience a temperate type of
climate are mainly free from most
of the tropical diseases and so that
are densely settled.
• Rugged and difficult terrain hinders
the development of settlement and
its expansion.
Transportation and communication
• The highly dissected and rugged
topography:
 hindered the development of
internal surface transportation.
 makes infrastructure development
and maintenance costly.
 influenced TV and radio
communications
 rendered rivers less navigable due to
waterfalls, deep gorges, steep cliffs.
Hydroelectric power potential
• The great difference in altitude
coupled with high rainfall created
suitable conditions for a very high
potential for the production of
hydroelectric power in Ethiopia.
Socio-cultural feeling
• The rugged terrain as a result
of excessive surface dissection
resulted in the long-term
isolation of communities that led
to the occurrence of cultural
diversity.
• People who live in the
highlands have been identifying
themselves as degegnas
(mountaineers) and those who live
in the lowlands as kollegnas
(lowlanders).
Impacts on climate
• The climate of Ethiopia is a result
of its tropical position and the
great altitudinal variation.
• Highlands with higher amount of
rainfall and lower rate of evapo-
transpiration tend to be moisture
surplus compared to the moisture
deficit lowlands.
Impacts on soil
• Steep mountain slopes have
shallow and little developed soils,
unstable surface materials due to
degradation processes.
• Impacts on natural vegetation
• Relief through its effect on climate
and hydrology affect the type of
natural vegetation grown.