FUELS AND

COMBUSTION
FUELS AND COMBUSTION
■ Fuel – composed of chemical element which, in
rapid chemical union with oxygen, produce
combustion. It is any material that liberates heat
when it reacts with oxygen.
FUELS AND COMBUSTION
■ Combustion (burning) – is a rapid chemical combination
of oxygen with fuel which results in the evolution of light
and rapid production of heat. It is the union of oxygen with
combustible materials.
 FUELS
■ Most fuels are consist primarily of
carbon and hydrogen. They are
called hydrocarbon fuels, these
are usually denoted by CnHm

■ Hydrocarbon fuel exists in all

phases and most of them also fall
into three categories:
Coal, liquid hydrocarbons, and gas
hydrocarbon.
CLASSIFICATION of fuel
■SOLID FUELS
Natural: COAL, wood, and wood wastes,
bagasse, rice husks, coconut shells, and
vegetable wastes
Prepared: charcoal, coke, briquetted coal and
paper
coal
■ Coal – consists of remains of
vegetation deposits of past
geologic ages after being
subjected to biochemical actions,
high pressure, high temperature, and
submersion
■ It mainly consists of carbon and contains
various amounts of C, O, N, H, S, Moisture
and Ash which varies depending on the region
where it is obtained
ANALYSIS OF SOLID FUELS (COAL)
■ Proximate analysis – determines the
composition of the coal by mechanical
processes. It determines the mass
percentages of fixed carbon, volatile matter,
moisture and ash.
■ Ultimate analysis – separates coal into its
chemical constituents by chemical process:
CHONSAM
■ NOTE: done on a mass/gravimetric basis
Proximate analysis
■ Moisture – exists in two forms: inherent and free
moisture.
■ Volatile Matter – consist of carbon combined
with hydrogen together with other gas forming
constituents driven off by heat.
■ Fixed Carbon – carbon which is not in
combination with other elements
■ Ash – exists as fixed (from original vevgetable
matter) and free ash (other coal, shades, pyrite).
Ultimate analysis
■ Carbon – percentage of carbon plays that plays the most
part in selection of coal for thermal power plant
■ Hydrogen – part of hydrogen exists in the coal in
combined form with oxygen as inherent moisture
■ Oxygen – always comes combined with hydrogen
■ Nitrogen – does not play important roles in combustion
calculations as it is chemically inert, however at very
high temperatures it can produce nitric oxides
■ Sulfur – Adds a little heating value but produces
undesirable products of combustion
Methods of reporting analysis
■ Both proximate analysis and ultimate analysis
can be expressed in terms of
- “fuel as-received” or “fuel as-fired”
- “fuel as moisture free” or dry fuel
- “fuel as moisture and ash-free” or combustible
fuel
Methods of reporting analysis
FUEL AS RECEIVED or FUEL AS FIRED
Ultimate Analysis Proximate Analysis
C = ___% V.M. = ____%
H2 = ___% F.C. = ____%
O2 = ___% M = ____%
N2 = ___% A = ____%
S = ___% _________
A = ___% TOTAL = 100%
M = ___%
_________
TOTAL = 100%
Methods of reporting analysis
DRY BASIS or MOISTURE FREE
ULTIMATE ANALYSIS PROXIMATE
ANALYSIS
C = as fired C/(1-M) V.M. = as fired VM/(1-M)
H2 = as fired H2/(1-M) F.C. = as fired FC/(1-M)
O2 = as fired O2/(1-M) A = as fired A/(1-M)
N2 = as fired N2/(1-M) _________
S = as fired S/(1-M) TOTAL = 100%
A = as fired A/(1-M)
_________ CONVERSION FROM AS-
RECEIVED
TOTAL = 100%
MOISTURE FREE =
Methods of reporting analysis
AS MOISTURE AND ASH - FREE
ULTIMATE ANALYSIS PROXIMATE ANALYSIS
C = as fired C/(1-M-A) V.M. = as fired VM/(1-M-
H2 = as fired H2/(1-M-A) A)
O2 = as fired O2/(1-M-A) F.C. = as fired FC/(1-M-A)
N2 = as fired N2/(1-M-A) _________
S = as fired S/(1-M-A) TOTAL = 100%
_________
TOTAL = 100% CONVERSION FROM AS-RECEIVED

MOISTURE FREE =
CLASSIFICATION of fuel
■ LIQUID FUELS – major source of liquid fuel is
petroleum which is obtained from wells under the
earth’s crust. Proved to be more advantageous
compared to solid fuels
■ Advantages: require less space, higher calorific
value, easy control, easy transport and handling,
and non deterioration of oil in storage
Natural: Crude petroleum
Prepared: gasoline, diesel kerosene, alcohol,
bunker fuel oils A,B, and C, biofuel
Liquid fuels
■ Most liquid hydrocarbons are mixture of
numerous hydrocarbons and are obtained
from crude oil thru distillation
CLASSIFICATION of fuel
■ GASEOUS FUELS
■ Advantages: better control for combustion, much
less air is needed for complete combustion, more
economic and efficient in furnace operation, easy
maintenance of oxidizing
Natural: Natural Gas
Prepared: Liquefied Petroleum Gas, blast
furnace gas, coke-oven gas, water gas,
producer gas, biogas.
GASEOUS FUELS
■ Produced from gas wells or oil wells rich in
natural gas.
Characteristics of hydrocarbon families
Characteristics of hydrocarbon families

• Paraffin or alkane (ends with –ane)

• Olefin or alkene (ends with –ylene)
• Diolefin or alkadiene (ends with –diene)
Some terms for liquid fuels
■ Cetane Number – percentage of cetane and
alphamethylnapthaline which will give the
same ignition quality as the fuel oil under
test.
■ Octane Number – the octane number of a
gasoline is the percentage by volume of iso-
octane In a mixture of iso-octane and
normal heptane.
Some terms for liquid fuels
■ Cloud Point – temperature at which solution
becomes waxy or cloudy
■ Fire Point – lowest temperature of a liquid fuel
oil in an open container at which oil continuously
burn when ignited
■ Flash Point – the minimum temperature at which
vapor will flash hen exposed to flame
■ Pour Point – temperature at which below the oil
losses its flow characteristics
Some terms for liquid fuels
■ Specific gravity – ratio of any volume oil 60oF to
the weight of an equal volume of pure water at
60oF. The American Petroleum Institute (oAPI) of
pure water is 10o.
APIo =

■ Viscosity – internal resistance of fluid to flow

■ Volatility – percentage of fuel by volume that will
evaporate at a given temperature
Some terms for liquid fuels
■ Heating Value – is defined as the amount of heat
energy liberated or released by the complete
combustion of a unit mass or unit volume when
the products of combustion are cooled to the
original temperature of the fuel

HEATING VALUE

FUEL @ T1
PRODUCTS OF COMBUSTION @ T2=T1
COMBUSTION
OXYGEN @ T1
Heating value
■ Higher Heating Value – amount of heat liberated
per kilogram or pound of fuel as indicated by a
constant-volume calorimeter in which the steam
produced is condensed and the heat of vapor is
recovered
■ Lower Heating Value – found by deducting from
the HHV the heat need to vaporize the moisture
formed when a fuel burns, heating value obtained
when water in the products of combustion is in the
vapor state.
Combustion process
■ Chemical reaction in which a fuel is oxidized and
a large amount of energy is released; most
common oxidizer is air as it is free and readily
available
■ Process of oxidation of constituents of fuel that
are capable of being oxidized. Therefore it can be
written in a chemical equation

FUEL + O2 POC
Review on chemistry
■ Some common elements used in combustion
processes (CHONS)
ELEMENT SYMBOL ATOMIC WEIGHT MOLECULAR WEIGHT
(g/mol) (g/mol)
Carbon C 12 12
Hydrogen H2 1 2
Oxygen O2 16 32
Nitrogen N2 14 28
Sulfur S 32 32

Diatomic Elements: H2, N2, F2, O2, I2, Cl2, Br2  Have No Fear Of Ice Cold Beer
Samples
■ Determine the MW of (a) octane (b) methane
(c) propane and (d) butane
These are all members of the paraffin family (alkane) which usually
has the chemical composition of CnHm in which m =2n+2
MW of Octane C8H18 = 8(12) + 18(1) = 114 kg/kmol
MW of Methane CH4 = 1(12) + 4(1) = 16 kg/kmol
MW of Propane C3H8 = 3(12) + 8(1) = 44 kg/kmol
MW of Butane C4H10 = 4(12) + 10(1) = 58 kg/kmol

The first four alkanes are Methane, Ethane, Propane, and Butane, alkanes with
five or more carbon atoms are named after their appropriate numerical
multiplier (eg. Octane -8, Dodecane – 12)
Review on chemistry
Reactants  Products
C5H12 + 8(O2+3.76N2)  5CO2 + 6H2O + 30.08N2
Fuel + Dry Air  Products
Some Tips when balancing equations:
1. Write the unbalanced equation listing the chemical formulas of reactants
on the reactant side and the products on the product side
2. Balance the equation. Always remember that it follows the Law of
Conservation of Mass, therefore the number of atoms of each elements on
each side will always be equal.
3. It is good to start on an elements that appears only once as a reactant and
product.
4. For most combustion processes it usually follows CHOAirN
Types of Combustion process
Fuel + Dry Air Products of Combustion
(C,H2,O2,N2,S, (O2,N2) (CO2, H20, SO2, N, O2, CO, NOx, OH.
A, M) Unburned C, unburned H2)
■ Theoretical Combustion – Ideal process where fuel is completely burned with
theoretical amount of air
■ Complete Combustion – Process where all of the C turns into CO2, all H turns
to H2O, and all S turns into SO2
■ Incomplete Combustion – Combustion process where products contain any
unburned fuel
■ NOTE: Bringing fuel in contact with oxygen is not enough for combustion, for
combustion to take place the fuel must be brought above its ignition
temperature. Moreover, proper proportions of fuel and air must be present
Fuel + Dry Air Products of Combustion

■ Theoretical combustion: CO2, H2O, SO2, N2

■ Complete combustion: CO2, H2O, SO2, N2, O2 (excess)
■ Incomplete combustion: CO2, CO, H2O, OH, SO2, N2, O2
(excess), unburned C, unburned H2
COMBUSTION PROCESS
To ensure complete combustion of all parts of fuel present
the following conditions must be present:
■ The amount of air should be sufficient
■ Air and fuel must be thoroughly mixed so that each
combustible particles must be in intimate contact with O2
■ The fuel should remain in the furnace for sufficient time
until it gets burned completely.
■ The temperature in the furnace should be high enough to
ignite air-fuel mixture.
Air fuel ratio
■ Theoretical Air-Fuel Ratio– minimum amount of air needed for
complete combustion also called as Stoichiometric Air.
■ Actual Air AF Ratio– the actual amount of air supplied for the
combustion process, usually higher than the stoichiometric amount of
air to increase chance of complete combustion (commonly expressed
in percent excess of the theoretical amount)
■ Excess Air – air supplied in excess of theoretical amount

AIR COMPOSITION FOR COMBUSTION

On a Volumetric/Molal Basis On a Gravimetric/Mass Basis
O2 – 21% O2 – 23.1%
N2 – 79% N2 – 76.9%
Each mole O2 is accompanied by Each kg of O2 is accompanied by
3.76 moles of N2 3.32 kg of N2
Determination of air-fuel ratio
■ Thru balancing chemical equation (A/F ratio in
moles air per moles fuel) [usually used for
liquid and gas fuels]
■ Thru derived equation based on the fuel used
[most commonly used for coal]
■ Thru analysis of the products of combustion
 Derived equation for a/f ratio

Theoretical A/F ratio = mta

= 11.5C + 34.5(H2 – ) + 4.3245S

Kgair/kgfuel
Percentage of excess air

=
 SAMPLE
PROBLEMS
Determination of air-fuel ratio
■ Example 1: An ultimate analysis of bituminous
coal as received shows the following
C H2 O2 N2 S A M TOTAL
78.28 4.98 4.78 1.38 1.2 6.23 3.16 100%

Calculate the theoretical amount of air needed for

the complete combustion of a unit mass of fuel
Determination of air-fuel ratio
■ Example 2: Coal has the following ultimate
analysis in the as-received basis
C H2 O2 N2 S A M TOTAL
71.7 5.21 8.39 1.3 3.4 6.5 3.5 100%

Determine the actual air for 20% excess air in the

moisture-free basis
Determination of air-fuel ratio
■ Example 3: Ethane is burned with just twice the
theoretical amount of air. How much is used to
oxidize 6kg of fuel?
Determination of air-fuel ratio
■ Example 4: In a combustion chamber, ethane is
burned at a rate of 6kg/hr which air enters the
combustion chamber at a rate of 132kg/hr.
Determine the percentage of excess air used
during this process.
Determination of air-fuel ratio
■ Example 5: Octane is burned with 50% excess
air. Determine the (a) balanced reaction (b) dew
point temperature of the products
GET READY FOR
QUIZ 1
PRODUCTS OF
COMBUSTION
Solid fuels
■ THEORETICAL COMBUSTION

C,H2,O2.N2,S, GASEOUS
FUEL CO2, H2O, SO2, N2
PRODUCTS
A,M
COMBUSTION
CHAMBER

A SOLID REFUSE
AIR O2,N2,M
Solid fuels
■ COMPLETE COMBUSTION

C,H2,O2.N2,S, CO2, H2O, SO2, N2, GASEOUS

FUEL excess O2 PRODUCTS
A, M
COMBUSTION
CHAMBER
Ar, ash in refuse
Cr, Combustible SOLID REFUSE
AIR O2,N2,M
refuse
Solid fuels
■ INCOMPLETE COMBUSTION

C,H2,O2.N2,S, CO2, H2O, SO2, N2, GASEOUS

FUEL excess O2, CO PRODUCTS
A, M
COMBUSTION
CHAMBER
Ar, ash in refuse
Cr, Combustible SOLID REFUSE
AIR O2,N2,M
refuse
Products of combustion (coal)
Product Theoretical Combustion Complete Combustion Incomplete Combustion

mCO2

mCO Ø Ø

mO2 Ø 0.231 e mta 0.231 e mta +

mN2 0.769 mta + N2 (fuel) 0.769 maa + N2 (fuel)

mH2O 9H2 + Wair mta + M (fuel) 9H2 + Wair maa + M(fuel)

mSO2 2S 2S 2S

Where: C’ = C - A = ash from fuel analysis (ultimate)

Ar = ash in refuse C = carbon from ultimate analysis

Cr = combustible (carbon) in refuse C’ = actual amount of carbon burned

= applicable for solid fuel only
 
LIQUID fuels

THEORETICAL
FUEL C,H2,O2.N2,S CO2, H2O, SO2, N2
COMBUSTION

COMBUSTION CO2, H2O, SO2, N2, COMPLETE

AIR O2,N2,M CHAMBER excess O2 COMBUSTION

CO2, H2O, SO2, N2, INCOMPLETE

excess O2, CO COMBUSTION
Products of combustion (liquid fuel)
Product Theoretical Combustion Complete Combustion Incomplete Combustion

mCO2

mCO Ø Ø

mO2 Ø 0.231 e mta 0.231 e mta +

mN2 0.769 mta + N2 (fuel) 0.769 maa + N2 0.769 maa + N2

mH2O 9H2 + Wair mta 9H2 + Wair maa 9H2 + Wair maa

mSO2 2S 2S 2S
gaseous fuels

THEORETICAL
FUEL C,H2,O2.N2 CO2, H2O, N2
COMBUSTION

COMBUSTION CO2, H2O, N2, COMPLETE

AIR O2,N2,M CHAMBER excess O2 COMBUSTION

CO2, H2O, N2, INCOMPLETE

excess O2, CO COMBUSTION
Products of combustion (gaseous fuel)
Products Theoretical Complete Combustion Incomplete Combustion
Combustion
mCO2, C C yC

mCO, ᵩ ᵩ (1-y)C

mO2, ᵩ 0.231mta 0.231emta + 1.33(1-y)C

MN2, 0.769mta + N2 0.769maa + N2

MH2O, 9H2 + Wairmta 9H2 + Wairmaa 9H2 + Wairmaa

MSO2, ᵩ ᵩ ᵩ

Wair = humidity ratio of air

mta = actual air, kgair/kgfuel
y = proportional part of carbon burned to CO2
e = excess air%
(1-y) = proportional part of unburned carbon forming CO
Orsat analysis of poc
■ To control the combustion
process better, an analysis of the
POC (flue gas specifically) is
made. This can be made easier
thru the use of the ORSAT
ANALYZER APPARATUS.
■ Orsat Analysis is based on a dry
volumetric analysis
Analysis of flue gas
■ Flue gas temperature must be higher than the dew-point
temperature as to prevent condensation of water.
■ If condensation occurs, the condensate will react with the
sulfur dioxide and produce sulfuric acid which is highly
corrosive and will corrode the chimney or stack
■ DP temperature may be obtained by getting the saturation
temperature corresponding partial pressure of the water vapor
in the flue gas
PH20 =
 SAMPLE
PROBLEMS
Determination of air-fuel ratio
■ Example 1: A coal has the following ultimate
analysis in the as-fired basis.
C H2 O2 N2 S A M TOTAL
57.61 5.73 5.8 1.07 3.29 16.5 10 100%

■ The plant using this coal has a pulverizer so

that only dry coal is supplied to the boiler, other
data as follows
e y Ar
40% 87% 90%

■ Predict the Orsat Analysis of the flue gas and

determine its density at 280oC and 140kPa
Determination of air-fuel ratio
■ Example 2: A steam generator burns fuel oil
that has the following chemical analysis by
mass percentage.
C H2 N2 S TOTAL
85.3 14.1 0.1 0.5 100%

Combustion takes place in 125% theoretical air.

The flue gas leaves the air-preheater at 170kPa.
What must be the partial pressure of the stack
gas to avoid condensation in kPa? Take
molecular weight of the flue gas as 28.80
Determination of air-fuel ratio
■ Example 3: A coal fired steam boiler uses
3000kg of coal per hour . Air required for the
combustion is 15.5kg/kgcoal at barometric
pressure of 98.20kPa. The flue gas has a
temperature of 285oC and an average
molecular weight of 30. Assuming an ash loss of
11% and an allowable gas velocity of 7.5m/s.
find the diameter of the chimney
Determination of air-fuel ratio
■ Example 4: A fuel oil is burned with 50% excess
air. What is the volume flowrate in m3/min of
wet products at a pressure of 102kPa and a
temperature of 350oC when the fuel is burned at
the rate of 45kg/min? Assume that the
combustion requirements of the fuel ol are
similar to those of dodecane.
Determination of air-fuel ratio
■ Example 5: One kmole of octane is burned with
air that contains 20kmol of O2. assuming
products contains only CO2,H2O,O2, and N2,
determine the mole number of each gas in the
products and the air-fuel ratio for this
combustion process
Determination of air-fuel ratio
■ Example 6: Ethane is burned with 20% excess
air during a combustion process. Assuming
complete combustion and a total pressure of
100kPa, determine the A/F ratio and the DP
temperature of the products
Determination of air-fuel ratio
■ Example 7: Octane is burned with dry air. The
volumetric analysis of the products on a dry
basis is 10.02%CO2, 5.62% O2, 0.88CO,
83.48%N2. Determine (a) the A/F ratio (b) %of
theoretical air used (c) amount of H2O that
condenses as the products are cooled to 25oC at
100kPa
GET READY FOR
QUIZ 2