CAAM B1 : MODULE 11

Module 11A
Turbine Aeroplane
Aerodynamics, Structures
and Systems

14/09/23
 11.5
Instruments/Avionic
Systems

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 11.5.1
Instrument Systems
(ATA 31)
(L2)

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 Topic

• Gyroscopic Instrument
– artificial horizon,
– attitude director,
– direction indicator,
– horizontal situation indicator,
– turn and slip indicator,
– turn coordinator

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 Gyroscopic Instrument
• It is a spinning mass (a heavy metal wheel or rotor)
mounted in a way that the spin axis is free to rotate
about one or two axes at right angles to the spin axis.
• It may have up to three axes of freedom that is Spinning,
Tilting and Veering. (Some note does not consider
spinning as degree of freedom)
• Due to the mass inertia of the fast rotating wheel the
direction of the spin axis always remains unchanged
(stabilized) in space, even if the gyro is turned or moved.
• This important property is applied for measuring and
indicating several flight characteristics that is Pitch, Roll
and Yaw.
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• A gyroscope consist of a Rotor, Inner Gimbal , Outer Gimbal
and Frame.
• Rotor
– This is a perfectly balanced rotating mass. lt is mounted on anti
friction bearings within a ring or frame known as inner gimbal. The
rotor axis is called spin axis (X-axis).
• Inner Gimbal
– The inner gimbal which supports the rotor is pivoted in a
supporting frame. The rotor is therefore free to turn relative to the
frame which is at right angles to the spin axis. A gyroscope having
an inner gimbal only is said to have 2 degree of freedom.
• Outer Gimbal
– Between the inner gimbal and the supporting frame a second
gimbal may be mounted which is known as the outer gimbal. The
type of gyroscope containing both an inner and an outer gimbal is
said to have 3 degrees of freedom.
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 Properties of Gyro
• Two basic properties that is
rigidity and precession.
- RIGIDITY - The axis of rotation
(spin axis) of the gyro wheel
tends to remain in a fixed
position in space if no force is
applied to it.
- PRECESSION - The axis of
rotation has a tendency to turn
at a right angle to the direction
of an applied force.
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 Rigidity
• A gyroscope is a spinning body that tends to keep its
spin axis rigidly pointed in a fixed direction in space.
• If the spin axis of a spinning gyro is pointed at a distant
star, it will remain pointed at the star as the Earth
turns.
• Gyro rigidity is the strength with which a gyro resists
any external force that would tilt its rotor spin axis.
• Three factors that determine gyro rigidity:
a. Weight of the rotor
b. Distribution of this weight
c. Rotor speed

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 Precession
– Is the effect which occurs when the spin axis of a rotating
body changes its direction by applying an external force and
it is at 90° from the direction of applied force.
• There are 3 types of precession.
– Apparent precession:
• This is the tilt due to the earths rotation and curvature. It
effect directional gyro by 15 degree per hour.
– Random precession:
• This is precession created by pivot and bearing friction
and out of balance assemblies.
– Actual precession:
• This is caused by the application of an external force, e.g.
when the support of the system (i.e. the aircraft) is turned
or moved.
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• The direction of the precession can be determined by:-
– The direction of rotation of the rotor
– The direction of the applied external force.
– The change in direction does not take place in line
with the applied force, but always at an angle of 90
in the direction of rotation.
• It is of major importance that the gyros speed of
rotation must be kept constant, since precession of the
rotor is directly proportional to its speed.

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• Factor that effecting precession is:
a. Strength and direction of the applied force
b. The moment of inertia of the rotor
c. The angular velocity of the rotor
• Rate of precession depend upon:
a. Mass and speed of rotor
b. Magnitude of the applied torque
• Sperry Rule of precession state that when force is
applied it will be felt at the rim of the rotor, follow the
direction of rotor spin and the gyro will precess at 90
degree from where the force is felt.

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 Type of Gyro
• Space Gyro – Also called a free gyro. 3 degree of freedom have
no used except for demonstration only.
• Earth Gyro – Also called vertical gyro. 3 degree of freedom. Axis
of spin vertical. It sense aircraft pitch and roll. Used in Attitude
Indicator.
• Tied Gyro – Also called Directional gyro. 3 degree of freedom.
Axis of spin horizontal. It sense aircraft yaw and effected by
Apparent Precession. Used in Heading Indicator.
• Rate Gyro – 2 degree of freedom (spinning and tilting). Axis of
spin horizontal. No outer gimbal. Spring fitted between inner
ring and frame. Used in Turn and Slip Indicator, Turn
Coordinator and rate measurement in which axis it is fitted.
• Laser Gyro – A gyro that does not have spinning rotor and
gimbals. Measure rate of movement and uses laser beam to
detect this movement. Used in Inertial Reference System.

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 Gyro Erecting System
• Free gyro maintains a fixed position in space so it cannot be
used to establish a stable, unchanging reference on earth.
• A Gyro Erecting system is used to position gyro to the desired
position and helping to keep it there it is done mechanically or
electrically, depending on the type of power available.
• Gyro-erecting system must meet the following requirements:-
1. It must provide torques (forces) of sufficient magnitude
and direction to precess the gyro so that its spin axis is
brought to the desired position after the rotor is spinning
at its operating speed.
2. The system must provide torques to precess the gyro
back to the required position at the proper rate and
direction to cancel the effects of apparent and
mechanical drift.

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• Mechanical type erecting system consist of Moving Vane system
and Moving Ball.
• Electrical system uses mercury switch to detect gyro movement
and torque motor to precess the gyro.
Moving Vane System
• The erecting device consists of four discharge ports in a chamber
below the rotor.
• Four vanes are suspended from pivots above the ports and hang
vertically due to gravity.
• The four ports are arranged 90° apart each other around the
chamber in such a way that two ports discharge air into opposition
directions.
• One pair of ports is located laterally and the other pair of ports is
situated fore and aft of the chamber.
• When the rotor spin axis is vertical each of the four vanes covers
half of one of the ports.
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• In this situation air is
discharged from all four ports
equally and there will not be
any resultant force which
could affect the gyroscope
vertical axis.
• Should the spin axis be out of
the vertical the chamber will
tilt with the rotor, but the
vanes (due to gravity) will
remain vertical.
• This causes one port to be
opened fully and the opposite
one to be closed fully.
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• The air, leaving to one side only, creates a precessive
force that will bring the gyro back to its upright (or
erect) position

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 Ball Type Erecting System
• The ball type erection unit utilizes the precessional forces
which arise when steel balls within a rotating holder are
affected by gravity.
• The holder is suspended from the gyro housing.
• The holder of the mechanism is rotated via the gyro rotor
shaft.
• It contains five to eight balls which are free to roll across a
round disc.
• A plate having a number of specially profiled hooks is fixed
around the inner edge of the holder.
• The spacing of the hooks is chosen so as to regulate the
release of the balls when the gyroscope tilts.
• When the gyroscope is in its normal operating position, the
balls change their position but the center of the masses
remains concentrated at the center of the erecting disc.
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• Whenever the gyro
tilts the balls roll to
the low side of the
holder and the
center of masses is
shifted.
• Because gravity
always exerts its
greatest pull at the
center of masses a
force is applied
which pushes the
gyro back to the
vertical position
(principle of
precession).

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 Torque Motor and Leveling Switch
• It is used in a number of electrically operated gyro
horizons.
• It consists of two torque control motors which are
operated independently by levelling switches.
• One switch is mounted parallel to the lateral axis, the
other parallel to the longitudinal axis.
• Each switch is connected to one torque motor and
causes the application of a corrective torque whenever
and for whichever axis necessary.
• The laterally mounted switch detects and corrects
displacement of the gyroscope in roll.
• The longitudinally mounted switch detect and correct
displacement of the gyroscope in pitch.

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• The leveling switch consists of a sealed glass tube
which contains 3 electrodes and a small quantity of
mercury.
• They are mounted in adjustable cradles set at right
angles to each other beneath the gyro housing.
• The tubes are filled with an inert gas to prevent arcing
at the electrodes when the mercury makes contact.

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• The torque motors comprise a split field induction motor.
• Its iron core has 2 windings:
– One provides a constant field (called the reference
winding).
– One winding is divided into 2 parts in order to provide a
reversible field (called the control winding).
• Both windings are powered from a step down auto
transformer (20V) connected between phase A and B of the
115 V supply to the gyro horizon.
• When the gyro is in operation the mercury in the leveling
switches lies at the center of the tubes and is in contact
with the center electrode.
• The 2 outer electrodes, which are connected across the
control windings of the torque motor stators, remain open.
• The auto transformer reduces the voltage to a selected
value which is fed to the center electrode of the switches
and the reference windings of the torque motors.
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• Thus, in the normal operating position of the
gyroscope, current flows through the reference
windings only.
• Should the gimbals wander, the mercury switches close the
circuits to the appropriate torque motor and cause the
erection of the gyro by application of a corrective torque.
• The fast erecting push button at the front of the gyro
horizon may only be operated by the pilot if the gyroscope
has toppled after a hard manoeuvre and the aircraft is once
again flying straight and level.
• This button will introduce the line voltage of 115VAC
bypass the autotransformer 20VAC power.
• Pitch torque motor is located between the outer gimbal
and frame.
• Roll torque motor is located between the inner gimbal and
outer gimbal.

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 Gyroscopic Instrument
• Gyroscopic instrument consist of Artificial Horizon,
Heading Indicator and Turn and Slip or Turn
Coordinator.
• If they are electrically driven and their output is in
electrical format it can be used by other system that
required aircraft attitude data.

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ARTIFICIAL HORIZON

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 Artificial Horizon
• It provide an indication of aircraft pitch and roll.
• A displacement gyroscope (Vertical Gyro) is employed
whose spin axis is maintained vertical by a gravity
sensing device.
• Indications of pitch and bank attitude are presented by
the relative positions of two elements, one symbolizing
the aircraft itself, and the other (in the form of a bar)
symbolizing the natural horizon.
• Gyro horizons may either be air driven or electrically
driven.

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 Air Driven
• A typical air driven gyro horizon comprises the
following main parts
– Case with air inlet/outlet
– Filter adapter assembly
– Vertical axis gyroscope with Outer gimbal (360°
freedom) and Inner gimbal (rotor case, 85° freedom)
– Fast erection unit
– Horizon bar
– Roll and Pitch scale
– Aircraft symbol

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• In the rear end of the horizon case a connection is
provided for the coupling of the vacuum supply.
• A filtered air inlet is positioned above the outer ring
rear bearing support and pivot.
• They are connected to a channel in the outer ring. This
channel terminates in diametrically opposed spinning
jets within the rotor casing.

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• Underside of the case has a number of drilled outlet holes.
• During operation of the vacuum system a vacuum is
created so that the surrounding atmosphere enters the
inlet and passes through the channels to the jets.
• When leaving the jets the air impinges upon the rotor
buckets, thus imparting even driving forces to spin the
rotor at approx. 15,000 rpm.
• After spinning the rotor, the air passes through a pendulous
vane unit attached to the underside of the rotor casing.
• Finally, it is drawn off by the vacuum source.
• The gimbal system is arranged in such a way that the inner
ring (gimbal) forms the rotor casing.
• It is pivoted parallel to the aircrafts lateral axis. The outer
ring is pivoted parallel to the aircrafts longitudinal axis.
• It carries an arm which supports the horizon bar.

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• Secured to the casing of the gyroscope is an actuating
pin which passes through an elongated slot (magnifying
lever system).
• The position of the curved slot determines the amount
of magnification of the horizon bar movement
presented to the pilot.
• The element symbolizing the aircraft may be either
rigidly fixed to the case or adjustable up and down for
pitch trim setting.
• A background plate symbolizing the sky is fixed to the
front end of the outer ring. It carries the bank pointer
which indicates the actual bank on the bank angle
scale.

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• The horizon bar and pointer are an accurately balanced assembly.
• They are pivoted in plain bearings on the side of the outer ring
and slotted in order to engage the actuating pin projecting from
the rotor case.
• Changes in the pitch attitude are indicated by the pointers left
and right of the bar which are located in front of the background
(sky) plate.
• In a climb attitude the bar pivot carries the rear end of the bar
upwards causing it to pivot about the stabilized actuating pin.
• The front end of the bar and the pointer therefore move
downwards through a greater angle than that of the outer ring,
and since movement is relative to the symbolic aircraft element, a
climbing attitude is indicated.

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• During operation, the gimbal system is stabilized so
that in level flight the 3 axes are mutually at right
angles to each other.
• When there is a change in the aircrafts attitude, e.g.
when beginning a climb, the instrument case and the
outer ring will turn about the lateral axis of the
stabilized inner ring.

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 How it Work
• Once the gyroscope has erected, the
outer gimbal will maintain the horizon
bar horizontal at all times, regardless of
any movement of the instrument case
during a roll or pitch attitude change of
the aircraft.
• When the aircraft banks, the instrument
case will move with the aircraft.
• Therefore the aircraft symbol will be at a
certain angle to the horizon bar (which
is stabilized by the gyro).
• The bank angle pointer, which is also
connected to the outer gimbal, will
indicate the actual bank angle.
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• During a descent (or climb), the
horizon bar will move below or above
the aircraft symbol.
• This happens because the outer gimbal
and the case will align at the angle of
dive (or climb) of the aircraft.
• The inner gimbal keeps the bar
actuating pin in the same horizontal
plane as the inner gimbal pivots.
Because of the curved slot the horizon
bar is forced move.
• The presentation to the pilot is that the
horizon bar moves up during a dive and
down during a climb.
• The scale graduations vary with the
type of instrument in use
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 Electric Attitude Indicators
• They are very similar to vacuum driven gyro indicators. Outer
gimbal (360° freedom) and Inner gimbal (rotor case, 85° freedom)
• The main difference is in the drive mechanism. Inside the gimbals
of an electric gyro, a small squirrel cage electric motor is the rotor.
• It is typically driven by 115-volt, 400-cycle AC and turns at
approximately 21,000 rpm.
• It erecting system will consist or Torque Motor and Mercury Switch.
• Gyros can be caged manually by a lever and cam mechanism to
provide rapid erection.
• When the instrument is not getting sufficient power for normal
operation, an off flag appears in the upper right hand face of the
instrument.

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• The fast erect must not be operated to long because
the erecting system will receive full voltage and can be
damage.

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ATTITUDE DIRECTOR INDICATOR

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 Attitude Director Indicator
• It an indicator which show two information that is an aircraft
attitude and Flight Director System.
• It present a symbolic three dimensional display of aircraft
attitude combine with lateral and vertical steering command.
• Aircraft attitude is display by a stationary airplane symbol in the
form of triangle or two inverted L with respect with a movable
horizon line.
• Horizon line is carried on a servo driven sphere in pitch and roll.
• Sphere are marked in increment of 5 degree and is coloured blue
to represent sky and brown to represent ground.
• Cross pointer bar or an inverted V is used as a command bar to
provide pilot command from the Flight Director System.
• The command bar will be out of view if the Flight Director System
fails.
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DIRECTIONAL GYRO

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 Directional Gyroscope
• The first gyroscopic serves as a heading indicator.
• Nowadays, in most aircraft it has been replaced by remote
reading compass systems and flight director systems.
• It uses a horizontal axis gyroscope, and is always used in
conjunction with the magnetic compass because it is effected
by Apparent Precession which cause it to drift 15 degree per
hour.
• Used as a short term heading changes during turns, while the
magnetic compass provides a reliable long term heading
reference during straight and level flight.
• Directional gyro consists of an outer ring pivoted about the
vertical axis Z and carrying a circular card graduated in
degrees same as magnetic compass.
• The card is referenced against a lubber line fixed to the
gyroscopic frame.

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• The air-driven directional gyro comprises the following
main parts:
– Case with air inlet/outlet ports, Filter adapter
assembly, Horizontal axis gyroscope, Synchronizer
gear/ring, Caging and setting knob and Compass
card.

Vacuum Driven Electrical Driven

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• The air driven rotor is universally mounted, having
freedoms about all three axes.
• It is enclosed in a case and spins about the horizontal
axis X.
• The rotor is supported in an inner ring which is free to
turn about the horizontal axis Y.
• The inner ring is mounted in the vertical outer ring
which carries the compass card and which is pivoted on
the vertical axis Z.
• The complete assembly is mounted in such a way that
it has complete freedom of rotation about the vertical
axis Z.

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• Inner gimbal ring assembly plus the rotor has freedom to
rotate 55 degree either side of the horizontal axis Y.
• Rotor rotate at speeds between 12,000 rpm and 18,000 rpm.
• A caging and setting knob is provided to adjust so that it is the
same heading with magnetic compass.
• When this knob is pushed an arm is lifted which locks the
inner ring at right angles to the outer ring.
• At the same time, a bevel gear at the end of the caging knob
spindle meshes with another bevel gear fixed to the outer
ring.
• Thus, a heading can be set by rotating the caging knob and, in
turn, the complete gimbal system via the synchronizer gear
and ring.
• Once the correct setting is made the gyroscope is freed by
pulling the caging knob out.
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• The reasons for caging the inner ring are:
– Prevent it from precessing when the outer ring is
rotated manually
– Ensure that, on uncaging, its axis is at a right angle to
the outer ring axis.
• In modern aircraft, this instrument has been replaced by a
remote indicating compass system.

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HORIZONTAL SITUATION INDICATOR

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 Horizontal Situation Indicator
• Unlike ADI which provide a command information an HSI will
provide a course deviation indication in the form of a Deviation
Bar.
• An aircraft is symbol is displayed at the center of the instrument.
• VOR/ILS display is shown in relation to this aircraft symbol.
• Heading indicator is usually slaved to a remote compass and the
HSI is frequently interconnected with an autopilot capable of
following the heading select bug.
• In this instrument, there are Course deviation bar (yellow),
TO/FROM indicator, Course select knob, Course deviation scale,
Compass card, Select course pointer, Symbolic aircraft, Heading
select knob, Heading select bug, NAV (or GS) warning flag and
Lubber line (orange or white)

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TURN AND SLIP INDICATOR

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 Turn and Slip Indicator
• The turn and slip indicator contains two independent
mechanisms:
– A gyroscope controlled pointer mechanism for the detection
and indication of the rate at which the aircraft turns
– A mechanism for the detection and indication of aircraft slip
or skid.
• The detection of rates of turn uses Rate Gyro. This gyro has a
single gimbal and two degree of freedom (Spinning and Tilting).
• The detection of slip/skid uses slip indicator (inclinometer). Its
principle of operation is based on the effect of gravitational and
centrifugal forces on a black ball inside a curved glass to indicate
whether the aircraft is skidding or slipping.
• Indicate rate of turn in degree per minute. Rate 1 is equivalent
to 180 degree per minute. Rate 2 = 360 degree per minute.

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• The turn and slip indicator with a DC driven Rate Gyro
comprises the following main parts:
– Housing with electrical connector
– DC gyro motor
– Inner Gimbal
– Damping device
– Calibrated spring
– Rate of turn needle
– Inclinometer
– Dial
– Gyro warning flag

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 Rate Gyro
• Consist of rotor with horizontal axis of spin, Inner gimbal and
frame
• Spring fitted between Inner gimbal and frame.
• When aircraft yaw the rotor will precess by tilting itself the
amount it tilt is controlled by the calibrated spring.
• This spring will also provide torque to return the rotor to it
original position.
• Attach to the inner gimbal
is a shaft which is
attach to a pointer
to indicate rate of turn.

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TURN COORDINATOR

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• The difference between turn coordinator and turn and slip are:-
Turn and Slip Turn Coordinator
Pointer used as display Small miniature aircraft symbol used as display
The gyro rotor is horizontal The gyro rotor is slanted by 30 degree
No warning displayed ‘No Pitch Information” displayed in the indicator
No rate of roll information Indicate rate of roll

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 Instrument Pneumatic System
• Purpose is to provide vacuum supply to gyroscopic
instrument
• Venturi System consist of 2 in Hg – for Turn and Slip
Indicator and 4 in Hg – for Gyro Horizon and Directional
Gyro
Vacuum Pump
• Consist of 2 type:-
• Vane type-Wet
– use oil for cooling and sealing
– disadvantage – oil contaminated the air
• Vane type-Dry
– use self lubricating carbons vane
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