Fuel Cells

What are Fuel Cells?
Fuel cells are electrochemical devices that convert chemical energy from the reactants
directly into electricity and heat. The device consists of an electrolyte layer in contact
with a porous anode and cathode on either side. An illustration of a fuel cell with
reactant/product gasses and the ion conduction flow directions through the cell is
shown in Figure.
In a standard fuel cell, gaseous fuels are fed continuously to the anode (negative
electrode), while an oxidant (oxygen from the air) is fed continuously to the cathode
(positive electrode). Electrochemical reactions take place at the electrodes to produce an
electric current.
How Fuel Cells Work

Fuel cells work like batteries, but they do not run down or need recharging
They produce electricity and heat as long as fuel is supplied. A fuel cell consists
of two electrodes—a negative electrode (or anode) and a positive electrode (or
cathode)—sandwiched around an electrolyte.
A fuel, such as hydrogen, is fed to the anode, and air is fed to the cathode. In a
polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell, a catalyst separates hydrogen atoms
into protons and electrons, which take different paths to the cathode.
The electrons go through an external circuit, creating a flow of electricity. The

protons migrate through the electrolyte to the cathode, where they reunite
with oxygen and the electrons to produce water and heat
Types of Fuel Cells
Although the basic operations of all fuel cells are the same, special varieties
have been developed to take advantage of different electrolytes and serve
different application needs.
The fuel and the charged species migrating through the electrolyte may be
different, but the principle is the same.
An oxidation occurs at the anode, while a reduction occurs at the cathode.
The two reactions are connected by a charged species that migrates through
the electrolyte and electrons that flow through the external circuit
POLYMER ELECTROLYTE MEMBRANE FUEL CELLS
Polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) fuel cells, also called proton exchange
membrane fuel cells, use a proton-conducting polymer membrane as the
electrolyte. Hydrogen is typically used as the fuel. These cells operate at
relatively low temperatures and can quickly vary their output to meet shifting
power demands. PEM fuel cells are the best candidates for powering
automobiles. They can also be used for stationary power production.
However, due to their low operating temperature, they cannot directly use
hydrocarbon fuels, such as natural gas, liquefied natural gas, or ethanol. These
fuels must be converted to hydrogen in a fuel reformer to be able to be used
by a PEM fuel cell.
DIRECT-METHANOL FUEL CELLS

The direct-methanol fuel cell (DMFC) is similar to the PEM cell in that it uses a
proton conducting polymer membrane as an electrolyte. However, DMFCs use
methanol directly on the anode, which eliminates the need for a fuel reformer.
DMFCs are of interest for powering portable electronic devices, such as laptop
computers and battery rechargers. Methanol provides a higher energy
density than hydrogen, which makes it an attractive fuel for portable devices.
ALKALINE FUEL CELLS
Alkaline fuel cells use an alkaline electrolyte such as potassium hydroxide or an
alkaline membrane that conducts hydroxide ions rather than protons. Originally
used by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) on space
missions, alkaline fuel cells are now finding new applications, such as in
portable power.
PHOSPHORIC ACID FUEL CELLS

Phosphoric acid fuel cells use a phosphoric acid electrolyte that conducts
protons held inside a porous matrix, and operate at about 200°C. They are
typically used in modules of 400 kW or greater and are being used for stationary
power production in hotels, hospitals, grocery stores, and office buildings,
where waste heat can also be used. Phosphoric acid can also be immobilized in
polymer membranes, and fuel cells using these membranes are of interest for a
variety of stationary power applications.
MOLTEN CARBONATE FUEL CELLS
Molten carbonate fuel cells use a molten carbonate salt immobilized in a porous
matrix that conducts carbonate ions as their electrolyte. They are already being
used in a variety of medium-to-large-scale stationary applications, where their
high efficiency produces net energy savings. Their high-temperature operation
(approximately 600°C) enables them to internally reform fuels such as natural
gas and biogas.
SOLID OXIDE FUEL CELLS

Solid oxide fuel cells use a thin layer of ceramic as a solid electrolyte that
conducts oxide ions. They are being developed for use in a variety of stationary
power applications, as well as in auxiliary power devices for heavy-duty trucks.
Operating at 700°C–1,000°C with zirconia-based electrolytes, and as low as
500°C with ceria-based electrolytes, these fuel cells can internally reform
natural gas and biogas, and can be combined with a gas turbine to produce
electrical efficiencies as high as 75%.
COMBINED HEAT AND POWER FUEL CELLS
In addition to electricity, fuel cells produce heat. This heat can be used to fulfill
heating needs, including hot water and space heating. Combined heat and
power fuel cells are of interest for powering houses and buildings, where total
efficiency as high as 90% is achievable. This high-efficiency operation saves
money, saves energy, and reduces greenhouse gas emissions.
REGENERATIVE OR REVERSIBLE FUEL CELLS

This special class of fuel cells produces electricity from hydrogen and oxygen, but
can be reversed and powered with electricity to produce hydrogen and oxygen.
This emerging technology could provide storage of excess energy produced by
intermittent renewable energy sources, such as wind and solar power stations,
releasing this energy during times of low power production.
Nanotechnology in Fuel Cells
How can nanotechnology improve fuel cells?
Catalysts are used with fuels such as hydrogen or methanol to produce hydrogen
ions. Platinum, which is very expensive, is the catalyst typically used in this
process. Companies are using nanoparticles of platinum to reduce the amount
of platinum needed, or using nanoparticles of other materials to replace
platinum entirely and thereby lower costs.
Fuel cells contain membranes that allow hydrogen ions to pass through the cell
but do not allow other atoms or ions, such as oxygen, to pass through.
Companies are using nanotechnology to create more efficient membranes; this
will allow them to build lighter weight and longer lasting fuel cells.
Small fuel cells are being developed that can be used to replace batteries in
handheld devices such as laptop computers. Most companies working on this
type of fuel cell are using methanol as a fuel and are calling them DMFC's, which
stands for direct methanol fuel cell. DMFC's are designed to last longer than
conventional batteries. In addition, rather than plugging your device into an
electrical outlet and waiting for the battery to recharge, with a DMFC you simply
insert a new cartridge of methanol into the device and you're ready to go.
Fuel cells that can replace batteries in electric cars are also under
development. Hydrogen is the fuel most researchers propose for use in fuel
cell powered cars. In addition to the improvements to catalysts and
membranes discussed above, it is necessary to develop a lightweight and
safe hydrogen fuel tank to hold the fuel and build a network of refueling
stations. To build these tanks, researchers are trying to develop lightweight
nanomaterials that will absorb the hydrogen and only release it when
needed.
Fuel Cells: Nanotechnology Applications

Researchers at the Technical University of Munich developed a model to
predict the optimum size for platinum nanoparticle catalysis and then
verified that particles one nanometer in diameter and containing
approximately 40 platinum atoms showed increased catalytic effectivness.
Researchers at Brookhaven National Lab are reporting the development of a
"nanoplate" catalyst using platinum and lead that has both a high level of
oxygen reduction and a long lifetime.
Researchers at the University of Copenhagen have demonstrated the ability

to significantly reduce the amount of platinum needed as a catalyst in fuel
cells. The researchers found that the spacing between platinum
nanoparticles affected the catalytic behavior, and that by controlling the
packing density of the platinum nanoparticles they could reduce the amount
of platinum needed.
Researchers at Brown University are developing a catalyst that uses no

platinum. The catalyst is made from a sheet of graphene
coated with cobalt nanoparticles. If this catalyst works out for production
use with fuel cells it should be much less expensive than platinum based
catalysts.
Researchers at Indiana University have demonstrated a modified emzyme

encapsulated by a protein shell that can function either as a fuel cell catalyst
or as a catalyst to produce hydrogen.
Researchers at Cornell University have developed a
catalyst using platinum-cobalt nanoparticles that produces 12 times more
catalytic activity than pure platinum. In order to achieve this performance the
researchers annealed the nanoparticles so they formed a crystalline lattice which
reduced the spacing between platinum atoms on the surface, increasing their
reactivity.
Researchers at the University of Illinois have developed a

proton exchange membrane using a silicon layer with pores of about 5
nanometers in diameter capped by a layer of porous silica. The silica layer is
designed to insure that water stays in the nanopores. The water combines with
the acid molecules along the wall of the nanopores to form an acidic solution,
providing an easy pathway for hydrogen ions through the membrane. Evaluation
of this membrane showed it to have much better conductivity of hydrogen ions
(100 times better conductivity was reported) in low humidity conditions than
the membrane normally used in fuel cells.

Fuel Cells

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What are Fuel Cells?

How Fuel Cells Work

The electrons go through an external circuit, creating a flow of electricity. The

An oxidation occurs at the anode, while a reduction occurs at the cathode.

DIRECT-METHANOL FUEL CELLS

PHOSPHORIC ACID FUEL CELLS

SOLID OXIDE FUEL CELLS

REGENERATIVE OR REVERSIBLE FUEL CELLS

Fuel Cells: Nanotechnology Applications

Researchers at the University of Copenhagen have demonstrated the ability

Researchers at Brown University are developing a catalyst that uses no

Researchers at Indiana University have demonstrated a modified emzyme

Researchers at the University of Illinois have developed a

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