Chapter 6

Biochemical
pathways –
Cellular
respiration

6-1
 Review questions Enzyme

 How enzymes and electron carriers are

related in biochemical processes?
 How electron carriers serve as proton
carriers?
 What is the fate of electron carriers once
their function is over?

6-2
 Biochemical reactions

 Requirement -
 Constant supply of energy from outside
 Chemical reactions occur under mild
conditions
 These chemical reactions are catalyzed by
enzymes
 In biochemical reactions, electrons are
released in steps those are harnessed by
6-3 electron transporters
 Energy and Organisms
 Organisms based on energy production -
– Autotrophs
 Use the energy from sunlight to make sugar molecules
 Use the energy in sugar to make ATP
– Heterotrophs
 Obtain organic molecules by eating the autotrophs
 Use the energy in the organic molecules to make ATP
 Autotrophs use photosynthesis.
– To use the energy from light to make sugar
 All organisms use cellular respiration.
– To harvest the energy from organic molecules and use it to
make ATP
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 Energy Transformation

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 Aerobic Respiration: An Overview
 A series of enzyme controlled reactions
– Oxygen is used to oxidize glucose.
– Glucose is oxidized to form carbon dioxide.
– Oxygen is reduced to form water.
 During the oxidation of glucose
– The C-H and O-H bonds will be broken.
– The electrons will be transferred to electron carriers, NAD and FAD.
 Glycolysis and Kreb’s cycle
– The electrons will be passed through an electron transport chain.
 The energy from the electrons will be used to pump protons.
 The energy from the diffusion of protons will be used to make ATP.

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 Aerobic Respiration and
Oxidation-Reduction Reactions

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Aerobic Cellular Respiration: Steps

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  Occurs in the
cytoplasm
Glycolysis  Anaerobic

 The breakdown of glucose

into pyruvic acid
 Two ATP molecules are
used to energize glucose.
 As glucose is metabolized,
enough energy is released
to
– Make 4 ATP molecules
 4 ATP made -2 ATP
used = net
production of 2 ATP
– Reduce 2 NAD+ to make
2 NADH
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 The Details of Glycolysis

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 Glycolysis

 Breaks Glucose molecule into two 3-C

compounds
 Do not require oxygen (anaerobic)
 Occurs in cytoplasm
 Requires two ATP to elevate glucose to high
energy state
 Produces 4 ATP in total
 Net gain of ATP 2
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 Occurs in
Kreb’s Cycle Mitochondria
 Also known as the citric acid
cycle or the tricarboxylic
acid (TCA) cycle
 The breakdown of pyruvic
acid
– Released as carbon dioxide
 Enough energy is released
as one pyruvic acid
molecule is metabolized to
– Make 1 ATP
– Reduce 4 NAD+ to form 4
NADH
– Reduce 1 FAD to form 1
FADH2.
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 The Details of the Kreb’s Cycle
Kreb's cycle

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 Kreb's cycle

 Occurs in Mitochondria
 The 3-Carbon compound is reduced to CO2
 Electrons released are trapped by 4 NAD+
and 1 FAD per pyruvate molecule
 This step mainly harness the electrons

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 Electron-Transport System

 NADH and FADH2 release the electrons they

received during glycolysis and the Kreb’s
cycle to the electron transport chain (ETC).
 The proteins of the ETC transfer the
electrons and use the energy released to
pump protons.
– Protons are pumped from the matrix to the
intermembrane space.
– Creates a concentration gradient
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 Electron-Transport System
 Oxygen is the final electron
acceptor at the end of the
ETC.
– Oxygen accepts the
electrons, combines with
protons and becomes
water.
 The accumulated protons
diffuse back into the matrix
through ATP synthase.
 The energy released
from the diffusion
fuels the formation of
CopyrightATP.
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 The Details of the Electron
Transport System

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 Total Yields for Aerobic Cellular
Respiration per Glucose Molecule

 Glycolysis
– 2 ATP
– 2 NADH (converted to 2 FADH2)
 Kreb’s cycle
– 2 ATP
– 8 NADH
– 2 FADH2
 Electron transport chain
– Each NADH fuels the formation of 3 ATP.
 8 NADH x 3 ATP = 24 ATP
– Each FADH2 fuels the formation of 2 ATP.
 4 FADH2 x 2 ATP = 8 ATP
 Total ATP=2+2+24+8=36 ATP made from the metabolism of
one glucose
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 Aerobic Respiration
in Prokaryotes

 Very similar to aerobic respiration in eukaryotes

 Since prokaryotes have no mitochondria, it all occurs in the
cytoplasm.
 Makes 2 more ATP because the NADH from glycolysis isn’t
converted to FADH2

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 Review Questions: Aerobic
respiration


Aerobic respiration takes place in
_________organelle.

Which of the following step(s) is/are not
aerobic in nature?
I) Kreb's cycle, ii) glycolysis, iii) ETS

The first stable molecule formed out of
breakdown of glucose is _____________

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 Review Questions: aerobic
respiration

What is the fate of the phosphate group in
Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate?

At the end of Kreb's cycle all the carbon
atoms in glucose molecule are released as
CO2. However, only two molecules of ATP
are produced as a consequnce of Kreb's
cycle. Explain.

At what stage of aerobic respiration
NaDH/FADH2 are oxidized to NAD+/FAD?
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 Review Questions: Aerobic
respirations

At which stage of aerobic respiration oxygen
participates?

As a consequence of NADH/FADH2
oxidation lot of protons accumulate in inner
mitochondrial membrane. These protons are
used by ATP synthetase to generate ATP.
Where these protons are pumped back?

Which type of organism produces more
number of ATP per glucose molecule? Why?
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 Anaerobic Cellular Respiration

 Some organisms do not have the enzymes for Kreb’s

cycle or the electron transport system.
 Some organisms can metabolize glucose in the
absence of oxygen.
 Metabolizing glucose in the absence of oxygen is
called anaerobic respiration.
– Involves the incomplete oxidation of glucose
– Fermentation is an anaerobic pathway that uses an organic
molecule as the final electron acceptor.

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 Anaerobic Cellular Respiration

 Anaerobic respiration usually starts with

glycolysis.
– Glucose is metabolized into pyruvic acid.
– 2 ATP are made.
 The fermentation reactions oxidize NADH to
regenerate the NAD+ that is needed in
glycolysis.
– In the process, pyruvic acid is reduced to either
lactic acid or ethanol or another organic molecule.
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 Why anaerobic respiration
cannot stop at Glycolysis only?

Glycolysis is itself incomplete respiration
because it has reduced electron carriers
which should be oxidized

This electron carriers NADH/FADH2 require
some electron acceptors to complete
respiration. Those are absent in glycosis

Pyruvic acid is the ultimate electron acceptor
in anaerobic respiration, but it occurs after
glyclolysis
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 Types of Fermentation

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 Alcoholic Fermentation

 Starts with glycolysis

– Glucose is metabolized to pyruvic
acid.
– A net of 2 ATP is made.
 During alcoholic fermentation
– Pyruvic acid is reduced to form
ethanol.
– Carbon dioxide is released.
 Yeasts do this
– Leavened bread
– Sparkling wine
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 Lactic Acid Fermentation
 Starts with glycolysis
– Glucose is metabolized to pyruvic acid.
– A net of 2 ATP is made.
 During lactic acid fermentation
– Pyruvic acid is reduced to form lactic acid.
– No carbon dioxide is released.
 Muscle cells have the enzymes to do this, but brain
cells do not.
–Muscle cells can survive brief periods of oxygen
deprivation, but brain cells cannot.
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“burns” in muscles.
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 Metabolizing Other Molecules

 Cells will use the energy in carbohydrates first.

– Complex carbohydrates are metabolized into
simple sugars.
 Cells can use the energy in fats and proteins as well.
– Fats are digested into fatty acids and glycerol.
– Proteins are digested into amino acids.
 Cells must convert fats and proteins into molecules
that can enter and be metabolized by the enzymes of
glycolysis or the Kreb’s cycle.
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 Fat Respiration
 Fats are broken down into
– Glycerol
– Fatty acids
 Glycerol
– Converted to glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate
– Enters glycolysis
 Fatty acids
– Converted to acetylCoA
– Enter the Kreb’s cycle
 Each molecule of fat fuels the formation of many
more ATP than glucose.
– This makes it a good energy storage molecule.
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 Protein Respiration

 Proteins are digested into amino acids.

 Then amino acids have the amino group
removed.
– Generates a keto acid (acetic acid, pyruvic acid,
etc.)
– Enter the Kreb’s cycle at the appropriate place

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 Differences between fat
respiration and protein
respiration

Fat respiration starts from glycolysis whereas

protein respiration starts from Krebs cycle
Because, molecule that involves in fat
respiration is glycerldehyde-3-phosphate
Molecule that involves in protein respiration is
either pyruvic acid or acetic acid
Fat produces many more ATPs than protein -
Why?
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 The Interconversion of Fats,
Carbohydrates and Proteins

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 The Bottom Line

 Carbohydrates, fats and proteins can all be

used for energy.
– Glycolysis and the Kreb’s cycle allow these types
of molecules to be interchanged.
 If more calories are consumed than used
– The excess food will be stored.
– Once the organism has all of the proteins it needs
 And its carbohydrate stores are full
 The remainder will be converted to and stored as fat.
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