16 Lectureslides

Lecture
Presentation
Chapter 16
Superpositi
on and
Standing
Waves
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

Suggested Videos for Chapter 16
• Prelecture Videos • Video Tutor Solutions
• Constructive and • Superposition
Destructive Interference and Standing
• Standing Waves Waves
• Physics of Your Vocal
System
• Class Videos • Video Tutor Demos

• Standing Sound • Vibrating Rods
Waves • Out-of-Phase Speakers
• Harmonics and
Voices
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 16-2
Suggested Simulations for Chapter 16
• ActivPhysics
• 10.4–10.7
• PhETs
• Wave Interference
• Wave on a String

Chapter 16 Superposition and Standing Waves
Chapter Goal: To use the idea of superposition to

understand the phenomena of interference and standing
waves.
Chapter 16 Preview
Looking Ahead: Superposition
• Where the two water waves meet, the motion of the water
is a sum, a superposition, of the waves.
• You’ll learn how this interference can be constructive or

destructive, leading to larger or smaller amplitudes.
Chapter 16 Preview
Looking Ahead: Standing Waves
• The superposition of waves on a string can lead to a wave
that oscillates in place—a standing wave.
• You’ll learn the patterns of standing waves on strings and

standing sound waves in tubes.
Chapter 16 Preview
Looking Ahead: Speech and Hearing
• Changing the shape of your mouth alters the pattern of
standing sound waves in your vocal tract.
• You’ll learn how your vocal tract produces, and your ear
interprets, different mixes of waves.
Chapter 16 Preview
Looking Ahead
Text: p. 500

Chapter 16 Preview
Looking Back: Traveling Waves
• In Chapter 15 you learned the properties of traveling
waves and relationships among the variables that describe
them.
• In this chapter, you’ll extend the analysis to understand the
interference of waves and the properties of standing
waves.

Chapter 16 Preview
Stop to Think
A 170 Hz sound wave in air has a wavelength of 2.0 m. The

frequency is now doubled to 340 Hz. What is the new
wavelength?
A. 4.0 m
B. 3.0 m
C. 2.0 m
D. 1.0 m

Reading Question 16.1
When two waves overlap, the displacement of the medium
is the sum of the displacements of the two individual waves.
This is the principle of .
A. Constructive interference
B. Destructive interference
C. Standing waves
D. Superposition

When two waves overlap, the displacement of the medium
is the sum of the displacements of the two individual waves.
This is the principle of .
A. Constructive interference
B. Destructive interference
C. Standing waves
D. Superposition

A point on a standing wave that is always stationary is a
.
A. Maximum
B. Minimum
C. Node
D. Antinode

A point on a standing wave that is always stationary is a
.
A. Maximum
B. Minimum
C. Node
D. Antinode

You can decrease the frequency of a standing wave on a
string by
A. Making the string longer.

B. Using a thicker string.
C. Decreasing the tension.
D. All of the above

You can decrease the frequency of a standing wave on a
string by
A. Making the string longer.

B. Using a thicker string.
C. Decreasing the tension.
D. All of the above

We describe sound waves in terms of pressure. Given this,
for a standing wave in a tube open at each end, the open
ends of the tube are
A. Nodes.
B. Antinodes.
C. Neither nodes or antinodes.

We describe sound waves in terms of pressure. Given this,
for a standing wave in a tube open at each end, the open
ends of the tube are
A. Nodes.
B. Antinodes.
C. Neither nodes or antinodes.

The interference of two sound waves of similar amplitude
but slightly different frequencies produces a loud-soft-loud
oscillation we call
A. Constructive and destructive interference.

B. The Doppler effect.
C. Beats.
D. Vibrato.

The interference of two sound waves of similar amplitude
but slightly different frequencies produces a loud-soft-loud
oscillation we call
A. Constructive and destructive interference.

B. The Doppler effect.
C. Beats.
D. Vibrato.

Section 16.1 The Principle of Superposition

The Principle of Superposition
• If two baseballs are thrown across the same point at the
same time, the balls will hit one another and be deflected.

• Waves, however, can pass
through one another. Both
observers would hear
undistorted sound, despite
the sound waves
crossing.


• To use the principle of superposition, you must know the
displacement that each wave would cause if it were alone
in the medium.
• Then you must go through the medium point by point and
add the displacements due to each wave at that point.

Constructive and Destructive Interference
• The superposition of two waves is called interference.
• Constructive interference occurs when both waves are
positive and the total displacement of the medium is larger
than it would be for either wave separately.

• The superposition of two waves is called interference.
• Constructive interference occurs when both waves are
positive and the total displacement of the medium is larger
than it would be for either wave separately.

• Destructive interference is when the displacement of the
medium where the waves overlap is less than it would be
due to either of the waves separately.
• During destructive interference, the energy of the wave is
in the form of kinetic energy of the medium.



QuickCheck 16.1
Two wave pulses on a string

approach each other at
speeds of 1 m/s. How does
the string look at t = 3 s?

QuickCheck 16.1

C.

QuickCheck 16.2


QuickCheck 16.2

B.

QuickCheck 16.3
Two waves on a string are moving toward each other. A picture

at t = 0 s appears as follows:
How does the string appear at t = 2 s?

QuickCheck 16.3
Two waves on a string are moving toward each other. A picture

at t = 0 s appears as follows:
How does the string appear at t = 2 s?

A.

Section 16.2 Standing Waves

Standing Waves
• Waves that are “trapped” and cannot travel in either
direction are called standing waves.
• Individual points on a string oscillate up and down, but
the wave itself does not travel.
• It is called a standing wave because the crests and troughs
“stand in place” as it oscillates.

Superposition Creates a Standing Wave
• As two sinusoidal waves of equal wavelength and
amplitude travel in opposite directions along a string,
superposition will occur when the waves interact.



• The two waves are represented by red and by orange in the
previous figures. At each point, the net displacement of
the medium is found by adding the red displacement and
the orange displacement. The blue wave is the resulting
wave due to superposition.

Nodes and Antinodes
• In a standing wave pattern,
there are some points that
never move. These points
are called nodes and are
spaced λ/2 apart.
• Antinodes are halfway
between the nodes, where
the particles in the medium
oscillate with maximum
displacement.

Nodes and Antinodes
• The wavelength of a
standing wave is twice the
distance between successive
nodes or antinodes.
• At the nodes, the
displacement of the two
waves cancel one another by
destructive interference.
The particles in the medium
at a node have no motion.

Nodes and Antinodes
• At the antinodes, the two
waves have equal magnitude
and the same sign, so
constructive interference at
these points give a
displacement twice that of
the individual waves.
• The intensity is maximum
at points of constructive
interference and zero at
points of destructive
interference.
QuickCheck 16.4
What is the wavelength of this standing wave?
A. 0.25 m
B. 0.5 m
C. 1.0 m
D. 2.0 m
E. Standing waves don’t have a wavelength.

QuickCheck 16.4
What is the wavelength of this standing wave?
A. 0.25 m
B. 0.5 m
C. 1.0 m
D. 2.0 m
E. Standing waves don’t have a wavelength.

Section 16.3 Standing Waves on a String

Reflections
• A wave pulse traveling along
a string attached to a wall
will be reflected when it
reaches the wall, or the
boundary.
• All of the wave’s energy is
reflected; hence the
amplitude of a wave
reflected from a boundary
is unchanged.
• The amplitude does not change, but
the pulse is inverted.
Reflections
• Waves also reflect from a discontinuity, a point where
there is a change in the properties of the medium.
• At a discontinuity, some of the wave’s energy is
transmitted forward and some is reflected.

Reflections
• When the string on the right is more massive, it acts like a
boundary so the reflected pulse is inverted.

Try It Yourself: Through the Glass Darkly
A piece of window glass is a
discontinuity to a light wave, so
it both transmits and reflects
light. To verify this, look at the
windows in a brightly lit room
at night. The small percentage
of the interior light that reflects from windows is more
intense than the light coming in from outside, so reflection
dominates and the windows show a mirror-like reflection of
the room. Now turn out the lights. With no more reflected
interior light you will be able to see the transmitted light
from outside.

Creating a Standing Wave
• Standing waves can be [Insert Figure 16.11]
created by a string with
two boundaries where
reflections occur. A
disturbance in the middle
of the string causes waves
to travel outward in both
directions.
• The reflections at the ends
of the string cause two
waves of equal amplitude and wavelength to travel in
opposite directions along the string.
• Two conditions must be [Insert Figure 16.11
met in order to create (repeated).]
standing waves on the
string:
• Because the string is
fixed at the ends, the
displacements at x = 0
and x = L must be zero
at all times. Stated
another way, we require
nodes at both ends of
the string.
• We know that standing waves have a spacing of λ/2 between
nodes. This means that the nodes must be equally spaced.
• There are three possible
standing-wave modes of a
string.
• The mode number m helps
quantify the number of
possible waves in a standing
wave. A mode number m  1
indicates only one wave, m  2
indicates 2 waves, etc.

• Different modes have different
wavelengths.
• For any mode m the wavelength is
given by the equation
• A standing wave can exist on the

string only if its wavelength is
one of the values given by this
equation.

• The oscillation frequency corresponding to wavelength λm
is
• The mode number m is equal to the number of

antinodes of the standing wave.

• The standing-wave modes are frequencies at which the
wave “wants” to oscillate. They can be called resonant
modes or resonances.

QuickCheck 16.5
What is the mode number of this standing wave?
A. 4
B. 5
C. 6
D. Can’t say without knowing what kind of wave it is

QuickCheck 16.5
What is the mode number of this standing wave?
A. 4
B. 5
C. 6
D. Can’t say without knowing what kind of wave it is

The Fundamental and Higher Harmonics
• The first mode of the standing-wave modes has the
frequency
• This frequency is the fundamental frequency of the

string.

The Fundamental and Higher Harmonics
• The frequency in terms of the fundamental frequency is
fm = mf1 m = 1, 2, 3, 4, . .
.
• The allowed standing-wave frequencies are all integer
multiples of the fundamental frequency.
• The sequence of possible frequencies is called a set of
harmonics.
• Frequencies above the fundamental frequency are referred
to as higher harmonics.

Example 16.2 Identifying harmonics on a string
A 2.50-m-long string vibrates
as a 100 Hz standing wave
with nodes at 1.00 m and
1.50 m from one end of the
string and at no points in
between these two.
Which harmonic is this?
What is the string’s
fundamental frequency? And
what is the speed of the
traveling waves on the string?

(cont.)
PREPARE We begin with the
visual overview in
FIGURE 16.15, in which we
sketch this particular standing
wave and note the known
and unknown quantities. We
set up an x-axis with one end
of the string at x  0 m and
the
other end at x  2.50 m. The ends of the string are nodes,
and there are nodes at 1.00 m and 1.50 m as well, with no
nodes in between.
(cont.)
We know that standing-wave
nodes are equally spaced, so
there must be other nodes on
the string, as shown in Figure
16.15a. Figure 16.15b is a
sketch of the standing-wave
mode with this node
structure.

(cont.)
SOLVE We count the number
of antinodes of the standing
wave to deduce the mode
number; this is mode m = 5.
This is the fifth harmonic.
The frequencies of the
harmonics are given by fm =
mf1, so the fundamental
frequency is

(cont.)
The wavelength of the
fundamental mode is
λ1 = 2L = 2(2.50 m) =
5.00 m,
so we can find the
wave speed
using the fundamental
relationship for sinusoidal
waves:
v = λ1 f 1 = (20 Hz) (5.00
m) = 100 m/s
(cont.)
ASSESS We can calculate the
speed of the wave using any
possible mode, which gives us a
way to check our work. The
distance between successive
nodes is λ/2. Figure 16.15 shows
that the nodes are spaced by
0.50 m, so the wavelength of the
m = 5 mode is 1.00 m. The frequency of this mode is 100 Hz,
so we calculate
v = λ5 f5 = (100 Hz) (1.00 m) = 100 m/s
This is the same speed that we calculated earlier, which gives us
confidence in our results.
Example Problem
A particular species of spider spins a web with silk threads
of density 1300 kg/m3 and diameter 3.0 μm. A passing insect
brushes a 12-cm-long strand of the web, which has a tension
of 1.0 mN, and excites the lowest frequency standing wave.
With what frequency will the strand vibrate?

Stringed Musical Instruments
• The fundamental frequency can be written in terms of the
tension in the string and the linear density:
• When you pluck a bow or string of an instrument, initially

you excite a wide range of frequencies; however the
resonance sees to it that the only frequencies to persist are
those of the possible standing waves.
• On many instruments, the length and tension of the strings
are nearly the same; the strings have different frequencies
because they differ in linear density.
QuickCheck 16.6
A standing wave on a string vibrates as shown. Suppose

the string tension is reduced to 1/4 its original value while
the frequency and length are kept unchanged.
Which standing wave pattern is produced?

QuickCheck 16.6
A standing wave on a string vibrates as shown. Suppose

the string tension is reduced to 1/4 its original value while
the frequency and length are kept unchanged.
Which standing wave pattern is produced?
C.
v
The frequency is f m  m 2L
Quartering
. the tension reduces v by one half.
Thus m must double to keep the frequency constant.
QuickCheck 16.7
Which of the following changes will increase the frequency

of the lowest-frequency standing sound wave on a
stretched string? Choose all that apply.
A. Replacing the string with a thicker string

B. Increasing the tension in the string
C. Plucking the string harder
D. Doubling the length of the string

QuickCheck 16.7

of the lowest-frequency standing sound wave on a
stretched string? Choose all that apply.
A. Replacing the string with a thicker string

B. Increasing the tension in the string
C. Plucking the string harder
D. Doubling the length of the string

Example 16.4 Setting the tension in a guitar
string
The fifth string on a guitar plays the musical note A, at a
frequency of 110 Hz. On a typical guitar, this string is
stretched between two fixed points 0.640 m apart, and this
length of string has a mass of 2.86 g. What is the tension in
the string?
PREPARE Strings sound at their fundamental frequency, so
110 Hz is f1.

string (cont.)
SOLVE The linear density of the string is
We can rearrange Equation 16.5 for the fundamental

frequency to solve for the tension in terms of the other
variables:

string (cont.)
ASSESS If you have ever strummed a guitar, you know that
the tension is quite large, so this result seems reasonable. If
each of the guitar’s six strings has approximately the same
tension, the total force on the neck of the guitar is a bit more
than 500 N.

Example Problem
Two strings with linear densities of 5.0 g/m are stretched
over pulleys, adjusted to have vibrating lengths of 50 cm,
and attached to hanging blocks. The block attached to String
1 has a mass of 20 kg and the block attached to String 2 has
mass M. When driven at the same frequency, the two strings
support the standing waves shown.
A. What is the driving frequency?

B. What is the mass of the block
suspended from String 2?

Standing Electromagnetic Waves
• A laser establishes standing light waves between two
parallel mirrors that reflect light back and forth.
• The mirrors are the boundaries and therefore the light
wave must have a node at the surface of each mirror.

Example 16.5 Finding the mode number for a
laser
A helium-neon laser emits light of wavelength λ = 633 nm.
A typical cavity for such a laser is 15.0 cm long. What is the
mode number of the standing wave in this cavity?
PREPARE Because a light wave is a transverse wave,
Equation 16.1 for λm applies to a laser as well as a vibrating
string.

Example 16.5 Finding the mode number for a
laser (cont.)
SOLVE The standing light wave in a laser cavity has a mode
number m that is roughly
ASSESS The wavelength of light is very short, so we’d

expect the nodes to be closely spaced. A high mode number
seems reasonable.

Section 16.4 Standing Sound Waves

Standing Sound Waves
• Sound waves are longitudinal
pressure waves. The air
molecules oscillate, creating
compressions (regions of
higher pressure) and
rarefactions (regions of
lower pressure).

• Sound waves traveling in a
tube eventually reach the
end where they encounter
the atmospheric pressure
of the surrounding
environment: a
discontinuity.
• Part of the wave’s energy is
transmitted out into the
environment, allowing you
to hear the sound, and part is
reflected back into the tube.
• Air molecules “slosh” back
and forth, alternately pushing
together (compression) and
pulling apart (rarefaction).

• A column of air open [Insert Figure 16.18 (c).]
at both ends is an
open-open tube.
• The antinodes of a
standing sound wave
are where the pressure
has the largest
variation: maximum
compressions and
rarefactions.

• Air molecules in tubes that are closed at one or both ends
will rush toward the wall, creating a compression, and then
rush away leaving a rarefaction.
• Thus a closed end of an air column is an antinode of
pressure.




QuickCheck 16.8
An open-open tube of air has length

L. Which graph shows the m = 3
standing wave in this tube?

QuickCheck 16.8
An open-open tube of air has length

L. Which graph shows the m = 3
A.

QuickCheck 16.9
An open-closed tube of air of length L

has the closed end on the right.
Which graph shows the m = 3

QuickCheck 16.9
An open-closed tube of air of length L

has the closed end on the right.
Which graph shows the m = 3
C.

• The wavelengths and frequencies of an open-open tube
and a closed-closed tube are
• The fundamental frequency of an open-closed tube is

half that of an open-open or a closed-closed tube of the
same length.
[Insert Equation 16.7 p. 511]

QuickCheck 16.10
The following tubes all support sound waves at their

fundamental frequency. Which tube has the lowest
fundamental frequency?

QuickCheck 16.10
The following tubes all support sound waves at their

fundamental frequency. Which tube has the lowest
fundamental frequency?
C.

QuickCheck 16.11

of the lowest-frequency standing sound wave in an open-
open tube? Choose all that apply.
A. Closing one end of the tube

B. Replacing the air in the tube with helium
C. Reducing the length of the tube
D. Increasing the temperature of the air in the tube

QuickCheck 16.11

of the lowest-frequency standing sound wave in an open-
open tube? Choose all that apply.
A. Closing one end of the tube

B. Replacing the air in the tube with helium
C. Reducing the length of the tube
D. Increasing the temperature of the air in the tube

QuickCheck 16.12
At room temperature, the fundamental frequency of an

open-open tube is 500 Hz. If taken outside on a cold winter
day, the fundamental frequency will be
A. Less than 500 Hz

B. 500 Hz
C. More than 500 Hz

QuickCheck 16.12
At room temperature, the fundamental frequency of an

open-open tube is 500 Hz. If taken outside on a cold winter
day, the fundamental frequency will be
A. Less than 500 Hz

B. 500 Hz
C. More than 500 Hz

Text: p. 511

Text: p. 512
• The curve of equal
perceived loudness shows
the intensity level required
for different frequencies to
give the impression of equal
loudness.
• The two dips on the curve
are resonances in the ear
canal where pitches that should seem quieter produce the
same perceived loudness.

Wind Instruments
• Wind instruments use holes to
change the effective length of
the tube. The first hole open
becomes a node because the
tube is open to atmosphere at
that point.
• Instruments with buzzers at the end or that use vibrations
of the musician’s lips generate a continuous range of
frequencies. The ones that match the resonances produce
the musical notes.

Example 16.8 The importance of warming up
Wind instruments have an adjustable joint to change the
tube length. Players know that they may need to adjust this
joint to stay in tune—that is, to stay at the correct frequency.
To see why, suppose a “cold” flute plays the note A at 440
Hz when the air temperature is 20°C.
a. How long is the tube? At 20°C, the speed of sound in air
is 343 m/s.

b. As the player blows air through the flute, the air inside
the instrument warms up. Once the air temperature
inside the flute has risen to 32°C, increasing the speed of
sound to 350 m/s, what is the frequency?
c. At the higher temperature, how must the length of the
tube be changed to bring the frequency back to 440 Hz?

(cont.)
SOLVE A flute is an open-open tube with fundamental
frequency f1 = v/2L.
a. At 20°C, the length corresponding to 440 Hz is

(cont.)
b. As the speed of sound increases, the frequency changes
to
c. To bring the flute back into tune, the length must be

increased to give a frequency of 440 Hz with a speed of
350 m/s. The new length is
Thus the flute must be increased in length by 8 mm.

(cont.)
ASSESS A small change in the absolute temperature produces
a correspondingly small change in the speed of sound. We
expect that this will require a small change in length, so our
answer makes sense.

Section 16.5 Speech and Hearing

The Frequency Spectrum
• Most sounds are a mix, or
superposition, of
different frequencies.
• The frequency spectrum
of
a sound is a bar chart showing
the relative intensities of
different frequencies.
• Your brain interprets the fundamental frequency as the
pitch and uses the higher harmonics to determine the tone
quality, or timbre.

The Frequency Spectrum
• The tone quality is what
makes a note on the trumpet
sound differently from the
same note (frequency) played
on a guitar. The frequency
spectrum is different.
• The higher harmonics don’t change the period of the
sound wave; they change only its shape.

Vowels and Formants
• Speech begins with the
vibration of vocal cords,
stretched tissue in your
throat.
• Your vocal cords produce
a mix of different
frequencies as they
vibrate—the fundamental frequency and a mixture of
higher harmonics.
• This creates the pitch of your voice and can be changed by
changing the tension in your vocal cords.

Vowels and Formants
• Sound then passes through
your vocal tract—a series of
cavities including the
throat, mouth, and nose—
that act like tubes.
• The standing-wave
resonances in the vocal tract
are called formants.

Vowels and Formants
• You change the shape and
frequency of the formants,
and thus the sounds you
make, by changing your
mouth opening and the
shape and position of your
tongue.

Section 16.6 The Interference of Waves from
Two Sources

Interference Along a Line
• Two loudspeakers are
spaced exactly one
wavelength apart.
Assuming the sound
waves are identical, the
waves will travel on top of
each other.
• Superposition says that for
every point along the line,
the net sound pressure
will be the sum of the
pressures.
• Because the loudspeakers
are spaced one wavelength
apart, the crests and
troughs are aligned, and
therefore are in phase.
• Waves that are in phase
will have constructive
interference.

• If d1 and d2 are the
distances from the
loudspeakers to the
observer, their difference is
called the path-length
difference.
• Two waves will be in
phase and will produce
constructive interference
any time their path-length
difference is a whole
number of wavelengths.
QuickCheck 16.13
Two speakers are emitting identical sound waves with a

wavelength of 4.0 m. The speakers are 8.0 m apart and
directed toward each other, as in the following diagram.
At each of the noted points in the previous diagram, the

interference is
A. Constructive.
B. Destructive.
C. Something in between.
QuickCheck 16.13
Two speakers are emitting identical sound waves with a

wavelength of 4.0 m. The speakers are 8.0 m apart and
directed toward each other, as in the following diagram.
At each of the noted points in the previous diagram, the

interference is
A. Constructive.(a, c, e)
B. Destructive. (b, d)
C. Education,
© 2015 Pearson Something
Inc. in between. Slide 16-122
• When the speakers are
separated by half a
wavelength, the waves are
out of phase.
• The sum of the two waves
is zero at every point; this
is destructive
interference.

• Two wavelengths will
be out of phase and will
produce destructive
interference if their
path-length difference
is a whole number of
wavelength plus half a
wavelength.

• For two identical sources of waves, constructive
interference occurs when the path-length difference is
• Destructive interference occurs when the path-length

difference is

QuickCheck 16.14
Two loudspeakers emit sound waves

with the same wavelength and the
same amplitude. The waves are shown
displaced, for clarity, but assume that
both are traveling along the same axis. At the point where the
dot is,
A. The interference is constructive.

B. The interference is destructive.
C. The interference is somewhere between constructive
and destructive.
D. There’s not enough information to tell about the
interference.
QuickCheck 16.14

with the same wavelength and the
same amplitude. The waves are shown
displaced, for clarity, but assume that
both are traveling along the same axis. At the point where the
dot is,
A. The interference is constructive.

B. The interference is destructive.
C. The interference is somewhere between constructive
and destructive.
interference.
QuickCheck 16.15

with the same wavelength and the same
amplitude. Which of the following
would cause there to be destructive interference at the
position of the dot?
A. Move speaker 2 forward (right) 1.0 m

B. Move speaker 2 forward (right) 0.5 m
C. Move speaker 2 backward (left) 0.5 m
D. Move speaker 2 backward (left) 1.0 m
E. Nothing. Destructive interference is not possible in
situation.
this
QuickCheck 16.15

with the same wavelength and the same
amplitude. Which of the following
would cause there to be destructive interference at the
position of the dot?
A. Move speaker 2 forward (right) 1.0 m

B. Move speaker 2 forward (right) 0.5 m
C. Move speaker 2 backward (left) 0.5 m
D. Move speaker 2 backward (left) 1.0 m
E. Nothing. Destructive interference is not possible in
this situation.
Example 16.10 Interference of sound from two
speakers
Susan stands directly in front of
two speakers that are in line with
each other. The farther speaker
is
6.0 m from her; the closer
speaker
is 5.0 m away. The speakers are connected to the same
680 Hz sound source, and Susan hears the sound loud and
clear. The frequency of the source is slowly increased until,
at some point, Susan can no longer hear it. What is the
frequency when this cancellation occurs? Assume that the
speed of sound in air is 340 m/s.
speakers (cont.)
PREPARE We’ll start with a visual
overview of the situation, as shown
in FIGURE 16.27. The sound
waves from the two speakers
overlap at Susan’s position. The path-length difference—the
extra distance traveled by the wave from speaker 1—is just
the difference in the distances from the speakers to Susan’s
position. In this case,
∆d  d2  d1  6.0 m 5.0 m  1.0 m

speakers (cont.)
At 680 Hz, this path-length difference gives constructive
interference. When the frequency is increased by some
amount, destructive interference results and Susan can no
longer hear the sound.

speakers (cont.)
SOLVE The path-length difference
and the sound wavelength together
determine whether the
interference at Susan’s position is
constructive
or destructive. Initially, with a 680
Hz
tone and a 340 m/s sound speed,
the wavelength is

speakers (cont.)
The ratio of the path-length
difference to the wavelength is
The path-length difference matches the constructive-

interference condition ∆d  mλ with m  2. We expect
constructive interference, which is what we get—the sound
is loud.

speakers (cont.)
As the frequency is increased, the
wavelength decreases and the ratio
∆d/λ increases. The ratio starts at
2.0. The first time destructive
interference occurs is when the
ratio reaches 2½, which
matches the destructive-interference condition ∆d  (m  )λ
with m  2. So destructive interference first occurs when the
wavelength is decreased to
This corresponds to a frequency of

speakers (cont.)
ASSESS 850 Hz is an increase of 170 Hz from the original
680 Hz, an increase of one-fourth of the original frequency.
This makes sense: Originally, 2 cycles of the wave “fit” in
the 1.0 m path-length difference; now, 2.5 cycles “fit,” an
increase of one-fourth of the original.

• If two loudspeakers are side by
side, and one emits the exact
inverse of the other speaker’s
wave, then there will be
destructive interference and the
sound will completely cancel.
• Headphones with active noise
reduction measure the ambient
sound and produce an inverted
version to add to it, lowering the
overall intensity of the sound.

Interference of Spherical Waves
• In practice, sound waves
from a speaker or light
waves emitted from a
lightbulb spread out as
spherical waves.

• Interference occurs where
the waves overlap.
• The red dot represents a
point where two wave crests
overlap, so the interference is
constructive.
• The black dot is at a point
where a crest overlaps a
trough, so the wave
interference is destructive.

• Counting the wave fronts,
we see that the red dot is
three wavelengths from
speaker 2 and two
wavelengths from speaker 1.
The path-length difference
is
Δr = r2 – r1 = λ
• The path-length of the black
dot is Δr = ½ λ.

• The general rule for identifying whether constructive or
destructive interference occurs is the same for
spherical waves as it is for waves traveling along a
line.
• Constructive interference occurs when
• Destructive interference occurs when

QuickCheck 16.16
Two in-phase sources emit sound

waves of equal wavelength and
intensity. At the position of the dot,
A. The interference is
constructive.
B. The interference is
destructive.
C. The interference is somewhere between constructive and
destructive.
interference.
QuickCheck 16.16
Two in-phase sources emit sound

waves of equal wavelength and
intensity. At the position of the dot,
A. The interference is
constructive.
B. The interference is
destructive.
C. The interference is somewhere between constructive and
destructive.
interference.
QuickCheck 16.17
Two speakers emit sounds of nearly equal frequency, as

shown. At a point between the two speakers, the sound
varies from loud to soft. How much time elapses between
two successive loud moments?
A. 0.5 s
B. 1.0 s
C. 2.0 s
D. 4.0 s

QuickCheck 16.17
Two speakers emit sounds of nearly equal frequency, as

shown. At a point between the two speakers, the sound
varies from loud to soft. How much time elapses between
two successive loud moments?
A. 0.5 s
B. 1.0 s
C. 2.0 s
D. 4.0 s

Text: p. 519

Example 16.11 Is the sound loud or quiet?
Two speakers are 3.0 m apart
and play identical tones of
frequency 170 Hz. Sam stands
directly in front of one
speaker at a distance of 4.0 m.
Is this a
loud spot or a quiet spot?
Assume that the speed of sound
in air is 340 m/s.
PREPARE FIGURE 16.31 shows a visual overview of the
situation, showing the positions of and path lengths
from each speaker.
(cont.)
SOLVE Following the steps in
Tactics Box 16.1, we first
compute the path-length
difference. r1, r2, and the
distance between the speakers
form a right triangle, so we can
use the Pythagorean theorem
to find
Thus the path-length difference

is
∆r = r  r = 1.0 m
(cont.)
Next, we compute the wavelength:
The path-length difference is λ, so this is a point of

destructive interference. Sam is at a quiet spot.

• You are regularly exposed to sound from two separate
sources: stereo speakers. You don’t hear a pattern of loud
and soft sounds because the music is playing at a
number of frequencies and the sound waves are
reflected off the walls in the room.

Example Problem
Two speakers emit identical sinusoidal waves. The speakers
are placed 4.0 m apart. A listener moving along a line in
front of the two speakers finds loud and quiet spots as
shown in the following figure. The grid lines are spaced at
1.0 m. What is the frequency of the sound from the two
speakers?

Section 16.7 Beats

Beats
• The superposition of two waves with slightly different
frequencies can create a wave whose amplitude shows a
periodic variation.

Beats
• The ear hears a single tone that is modulated. The
distinctive sound pattern is called beats.

Beats
• The air oscillates against your
eardrum at frequency
• The beat frequency is the

difference between two
frequencies that differ slightly:
• fosc determines the pitch, fbeat determines the frequency of

the modulations.

QuickCheck 16.18
You hear 2 beats per second when two sound sources, both
at rest, play simultaneously. The beats disappear if source
2 moves toward you while source 1 remains at rest. The
frequency of source 1 is 500 Hz. The frequency of source
2 is
A. 496 Hz
B. 498 Hz
C. 500 Hz
D. 502 Hz
E. 504 Hz
QuickCheck 16.18
You hear 2 beats per second when two sound sources, both
at rest, play simultaneously. The beats disappear if source
2 moves toward you while source 1 remains at rest. The
frequency of source 1 is 500 Hz. The frequency of source
2 is
A. 496 Hz
B. 498 Hz
C. 500 Hz
D. 502 Hz
E. 504 Hz
Example 16.12 Detecting bats using beats
The little brown bat is a common bat species in North
America. It emits echolocation pulses at a frequency of
40 kHz, well above the range of human hearing. To allow
observers to “hear” these bats, the bat detector shown in
FIGURE 16.34 combines the bat’s sound wave at frequency
f1 with a wave of frequency f2 from a tunable oscillator.

The resulting beat frequency is isolated with a filter, then
amplified and sent to a loudspeaker. To what frequency
should the tunable oscillator be set to produce an audible
beat frequency of 3 kHz?

SOLVE The beat frequency is , so the
oscillator frequency and the bat frequency need to differ by
3 kHz. An oscillator frequency of either 37 kHz or 43 kHz
will work nicely.

Example Problem
A typical police radar sends out microwaves at 10.5 GHz.
The unit combines the wave reflected from a car with the
original signal and determines the beat frequency. This
beat frequency is converted into a speed. If a car is
moving at 20 m/s toward the detector, what will be the
measured beat frequency?

Summary: General Principles
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Text: p. 523 Slide 16-162

Summary: General Principles
Text: p. 523

Summary: Important Concepts
Text: p. 523
Text: p. 523
Text: p. 523

Summary: Applications
Text: p. 523
Summary: Applications
Text: p. 523

Summary
Text: p. 523

Summary
Text: p. 523

Summary
Text: p. 523

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Lecture

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

• Class Videos • Video Tutor Demos

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 16-3

Chapter Goal: To use the idea of superposition to

• You’ll learn how this interference can be constructive or

• You’ll learn the patterns of standing waves on strings and

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 16-8

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 16-9

A 170 Hz sound wave in air has a wavelength of 2.0 m. The

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 16-10

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 16-11

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 16-12

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 16-13

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 16-14

A. Making the string longer.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 16-15

A. Making the string longer.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 16-16

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 16-17

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 16-18

A. Constructive and destructive interference.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 16-19

A. Constructive and destructive interference.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 16-20

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 16-22

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 16-23

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 16-24

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 16-25

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© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 16-27

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 16-28

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 16-29

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 16-30

Two wave pulses on a string

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 16-31

Two wave pulses on a string

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 16-32

Two wave pulses on a string

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 16-33

Two wave pulses on a string

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 16-34

Two waves on a string are moving toward each other. A picture

How does the string appear at t = 2 s?

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 16-35

Two waves on a string are moving toward each other. A picture

How does the string appear at t = 2 s?

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 16-36

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 16-38

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 16-39

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 16-40

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 16-41

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 16-42

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 16-43

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 16-44

What is the wavelength of this standing wave?