Chapter 16 Waves and Sound PDF

WAVES, SOUND AND OPTICS
LECTURER : MR. N MANDIWANA
Email: Ndanganeni.Mandiwana@smu.ac.za
OFFICE : NSB 208
Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Chapter 16: Waves and Sound
Chapter 26: The Refraction of Light:

Lenses and Optical Instruments
Chapter 16 Waves and Sound
16.1 The nature of waves (Done in High School)
16.2 Periodic waves (Done in High School)
16.5 The Nature of Sound Waves
16.7 Sound Intensity
16.8 Decibels (Sound intensity levels)
16.9 The Doppler Effect (Done in High School)
16.10 Application of Sound in Medicine
16.11 Sensitivity of the human ear (Self Study)
16.1 The Nature of Waves
Learning objectives
• Describe the concept of a wave and discuss the physical

examples
• Distinguish between transverse and longitudinal waves
The Nature of Waves
When one end of a (stretched) string is given a single up-and-
down jerk, a wave in the form a pulse travels along the string
1. A wave is a traveling disturbance.

2. A wave carries energy from place to place.
A wave is a travelling disturbance that carries energy from one point to
another in a medium
Transverse Wave
• A transverse wave is one in which the disturbance occurs

perpendicular to the direction of travel of the wave
• Examples of transverse waves are radio waves, light waves and
microwaves
Longitudinal Wave
• A longitudinal wave is one in which the disturbance occurs parallel

to the line of travel of the wave
• A sound wave is a longitudinal wave
16.2 Periodic Waves
Learning objectives
• Discuss the physical meaning of the terms wavelength and

frequency
• Relate the wave speed to its frequency and wavelength
Periodic Waves
• Periodic waves consist of cycles or patterns that are produced
over and over again by the source.
• In the figures, the repetitive patterns occur as a result of
simple harmonic motions.
• In the drawing, one cycle is shaded in color
• The amplitude A is the maximum excursion of a particle of the
medium from the particles undisturbed position.
• The wavelength is the horizontal length of one cycle of the
wave.
• The period is the time required for one complete cycle.
• The frequency is related to the period and has units of Hz, or s-1.
1
𝑓𝑓 =
𝑇𝑇
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝜆𝜆
𝑣𝑣 = = = 𝑓𝑓𝜆𝜆
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑇𝑇
16.5 The Nature of Sound Waves
Learning objectives
• Discuss the physical connection between sound waves and
vibrating objects
• Explain the production of sound by molecular-scale compressions

and rarefactions caused by vibrating objects
• Define audible, infrasonic and ultrasonic sound waves
The Nature of Sound Waves
LONGITUDINAL SOUND WAVES
• Consider sound from a loudspeaker

• Sound is a longitudinal wave that can
be created only in a medium, i.e. sound
cannot exists in a vacuum.
• Condensation:- the region where the
air pressure is higher than normal
• Rarefaction:- the air pressure is less
than normal
The distance between adjacent
condensations (or rarefaction) is
equal to the wavelength of the
sound wave.
• Individual air molecules are not

carried along with the wave.
• A given molecule vibrates back
and forth about a fixed point
THE FREQUENCY OF A SOUND WAVE
• The frequency is the number of cycles per second.

• A sound with a single frequency is called a pure tone .
• The brain interprets the frequency in terms of the subjective
quality called pitch.
• Human ear can detect sound of frequencies approximately
from 20 Hz to 20 000 Hz (20 kHz)
• Sound waves with frequencies below 20 Hz are inaudible
and are said to be infrasonic
• Frequencies above 20 kHz are ultrasonic
THE PRESSURE AMPLITUDE OF A SOUND WAVE
• Loudness is an attribute of a sound that depends primarily on

the pressure amplitude of the wave.
16.7 Sound Intensity
Learning objectives
• Discuss the average intensity of a wave, the threshold of hearing,

and the threshold of pain
• Define sound intensity level (decibel scale) and the reason it is
required
• Apply the equations for sound intensity and decibel level to
multiple sources of sound wavefronts
• Define wavefronts and apply them to spherical waves
• Relate the intensity of a spherical sound wave to the distance from
its point source
Sound Intensity
• Sound waves carry energy that can be used to do work.
• The amount of energy transported per second is called the

power of the wave.
• The sound intensity is defined as the power that passes
perpendicularly through a surface divided by the area of that surface.
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 (𝑃𝑃)
𝐼𝐼 =
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 (𝐴𝐴)
Example Sound Intensities
In the figure below12x10-5W of sound power passed through
the surfaces labeled 1 and 2. The areas of these surfaces are
4.0m2 and 12 m2.
Determine the sound intensity at each surface
𝑃𝑃
𝐼𝐼1 =
𝐴𝐴1
12 × 10−5 𝑊𝑊 −2
= = 3.0 𝑊𝑊. 𝑚𝑚
4𝑚𝑚2
𝑃𝑃 12 × 10−5 𝑊𝑊 −5 𝑊𝑊. 𝑚𝑚−2

𝐼𝐼2 = = = 1.0 × 10
𝐴𝐴2 12𝑚𝑚2
• For a 1000 Hz tone, the smallest sound intensity that the human
ear can detect is about 1 × 10−12 𝑊𝑊. 𝑚𝑚−2 . This intensity is
called the threshold of hearing.
• On the other extreme, continuous exposure to intensities greater
than 1𝑊𝑊. 𝑚𝑚−2 can be painful.
• If the source emits sound uniformly in all directions, the intensity
depends on the distance from the source in a simple way.
power of sound source
𝑃𝑃
𝐼𝐼 =
4𝜋𝜋𝑟𝑟 2
area of sphere
𝑃𝑃
𝐼𝐼 =
4𝜋𝜋𝑟𝑟 2
If the power emitted by the sources, P, is constant then

1 𝑃𝑃 𝑃𝑃
𝐼𝐼 ∝ 2 𝐼𝐼1 = 𝐼𝐼2 =
𝑟𝑟 4𝜋𝜋𝑟𝑟12 4𝜋𝜋𝑟𝑟22
𝐼𝐼1 𝑃𝑃⁄4𝜋𝜋𝑟𝑟12 𝑟𝑟22

= 2 = 2
𝐼𝐼2 𝑃𝑃/4𝜋𝜋𝑟𝑟2 𝑟𝑟1
Deep ultrasonic heating is produced by applying ultrasound
over the affected area of the body. The sound transducer is
circular with a radius of 1.8 cm, and it produces a sound
intensity of 𝟓𝟓. 𝟗𝟗 × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟑𝟑 𝑾𝑾/𝒎𝒎𝟐𝟐 .
How much time is required for the transducer to emit 𝟔𝟔 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑱𝑱
of energy?
Solution
Given: 𝐼𝐼 = 5.9 × 103 𝑊𝑊 ⁄𝑚𝑚2 𝑟𝑟 = 1.8 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 1.8 × 10−2𝑚𝑚 𝐸𝐸 = 6000𝐽𝐽
The power of the ultrasound is 𝑃𝑃 = 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 and the area of the circular
waves from the circular transducer is 𝐴𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 𝜋𝜋𝑟𝑟 2
Thus 𝑃𝑃 = 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 = 5.9 × 103 𝑊𝑊 ⁄𝑚𝑚2 𝜋𝜋 1.8 × 10−2 𝑚𝑚 2 = 6.005 𝑊𝑊

Also
𝐸𝐸
𝑃𝑃 =
𝑡𝑡
𝐸𝐸 6000 𝐽𝐽
∴ 𝑡𝑡 = = = 999 𝑠𝑠
𝑃𝑃 6.005 𝑊𝑊 Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
16.8 Sound Intensity Level -Decibels
• Sound Intensity is defined to be the power per unit area carried
by a sound wave
• How our ears perceive sound can be more accurately described in

terms of intensity level rather than intensity
• 𝐼𝐼0 = 1 × 10−12 𝑊𝑊. 𝑚𝑚−2 is the lowest or threshold intensity of

sound a person with normal hearing can perceive at a frequency
of 1000 Hz.
• The Intensity level 𝛽𝛽, is defined in terms of a ratio, it is a

unitless quantity telling you the level of the sound relative to a
fixed standard 𝐼𝐼0 = 1 × 10−12 𝑊𝑊. 𝑚𝑚−2
• Ordinarily, sound intensity level should be given by
𝐼𝐼
𝛽𝛽 =
𝐼𝐼0
(note that this is for explanation and is not the correct formula for Intensity level))
• The way our ears perceive sound can be more accurately
described by the logarithm of the intensity
𝐼𝐼
𝛽𝛽(𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏) = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙
𝐼𝐼0
• The decibel (dB) is a measurement unit used when comparing
two sound intensities.
10 𝐼𝐼
𝛽𝛽 = log
10 𝐼𝐼0
𝐼𝐼
𝛽𝛽(𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑) = 10 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙
𝐼𝐼0
• The Intensity level for the threshold of hearing
𝐼𝐼0 = 1 × 10−12 𝑊𝑊. 𝑚𝑚−2 is
𝐼𝐼
𝛽𝛽 = 10𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙
𝐼𝐼0
1×10−12 𝑊𝑊.𝑚𝑚−2
= 10𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙
1×10−12 𝑊𝑊.𝑚𝑚−2
=0
Note that log(1)=0, so when the intensity of sound is equal to the

threshold of hearing, the intensity level is zero
• The Intensity level for the threshold of pain
I = 1 𝑊𝑊. 𝑚𝑚−2 is
𝐼𝐼
𝛽𝛽 = 10𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙
𝐼𝐼0
1 𝑊𝑊.𝑚𝑚−2
= 10𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙
1×10−12 𝑊𝑊.𝑚𝑚−2
= 120 dB
Example 9 Comparing Sound Intensities
Audio system 1 produces a sound intensity level of 90.0 dB, and

system 2 produces an intensity level of 93.0 dB.
Determine the ratio of intensities.
𝑰𝑰𝟐𝟐
i.e. calculate
𝑰𝑰𝟏𝟏
Solution:
Given 𝛽𝛽1 = 90 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 and 𝛽𝛽2 = 93𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝐼𝐼1 𝐼𝐼2
𝐼𝐼 𝛽𝛽(𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑) 𝐼𝐼 𝐼𝐼 𝛽𝛽
𝛽𝛽(𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑) = 10 log = log = 1010
𝐼𝐼0 10 𝐼𝐼0 𝐼𝐼0
𝛽𝛽
𝐼𝐼 = 𝐼𝐼0 × 1010
METHOD 1
• For 𝛽𝛽1 = 90 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 then
𝛽𝛽
𝐼𝐼1 = 𝐼𝐼0 × 1010 = 1 × 10−12 𝑊𝑊. 𝑚𝑚−2 1090⁄10 = 10−3
• For 𝛽𝛽2 = 93𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝛽𝛽
𝐼𝐼2 = 𝐼𝐼0 × 1010 = 1 × 10−12 𝑊𝑊. 𝑚𝑚−2 1093⁄10 = 10−2.7
The ratio of their intensities is obtained from

𝐼𝐼2 10−2.7 0.3 = 2.0
= = 10
𝐼𝐼1 10−3
METHOD 2
𝐼𝐼
𝛽𝛽(𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑) = 10 log
𝐼𝐼0
𝐼𝐼1
𝛽𝛽1 = 10 log 𝐼𝐼2
𝐼𝐼0 𝛽𝛽2 = 10 log
𝐼𝐼0
𝐼𝐼2 𝐼𝐼1 𝐼𝐼2 ⁄𝐼𝐼0

𝛽𝛽2 − 𝛽𝛽1 = 10 log − 10 log 𝛽𝛽2 − 𝛽𝛽1 = 10 log
𝐼𝐼0 𝐼𝐼0 𝐼𝐼1 ⁄𝐼𝐼0
𝐼𝐼2
93 − 90 = 3.0 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 10 log
𝐼𝐼1
𝐼𝐼2 𝐼𝐼2
0.3 = log = 100.30 = 2.0
𝐼𝐼1 𝐼𝐼1
16.9 The Doppler Effect
Learning objectives
• Discuss the physical origins of the Doppler effect
• Apply the equations of Doppler-shifted frequencies to moving

sources and observers of sound
16.9 The Doppler Effect
The Doppler effect is the change in frequency or pitch of the

sound detected by an observer because the sound source and
the observer have different velocities with respect to the
medium of sound propagation.
MOVING SOURCE
𝜆𝜆′ = 𝜆𝜆 − 𝑣𝑣𝑠𝑠 𝑇𝑇
𝑣𝑣 𝑣𝑣
𝑓𝑓0 = ′ =
𝜆𝜆 𝜆𝜆 − 𝑣𝑣𝑠𝑠 𝑇𝑇
𝑣𝑣 𝜈𝜈 = 𝑓𝑓𝑠𝑠 𝜆𝜆
𝑓𝑓0 =
𝑣𝑣 ⁄𝑓𝑓𝑠𝑠 − 𝑣𝑣𝑠𝑠 ⁄𝑓𝑓𝑠𝑠 1
𝑇𝑇 =
𝑓𝑓𝑠𝑠
1
𝜈𝜈 𝑓𝑓0 = 𝑓𝑓𝑠𝑠 𝑣𝑣𝑠𝑠
𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑜 = 𝑓𝑓𝑠𝑠 1−
𝜈𝜈 − 𝑣𝑣𝑠𝑠 𝑣𝑣
source moving toward a 1
stationary observer 𝑓𝑓0 = 𝑓𝑓𝑠𝑠 𝑣𝑣𝑠𝑠
1−
𝑣𝑣
𝜈𝜈
𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑜 = 𝑓𝑓𝑠𝑠
𝜈𝜈 − 𝑣𝑣𝑠𝑠
source moving away from a 1

𝑓𝑓0 = 𝑓𝑓𝑠𝑠 𝑣𝑣𝑠𝑠
stationary observer 1+
𝑣𝑣
𝜈𝜈
𝜈𝜈 + 𝑣𝑣𝑠𝑠
The Sound of a Passing Train
A high-speed train is traveling at a speed of 44.7 m/s when the engineer
sounds the 415-Hz warning horn. The speed of sound is 343 m/s.
What are the frequency and wavelength of the sound, as perceived by a
person standing at the crossing, when the train is
(a) approaching and
(b) leaving the crossing?
Given information
Solution for a) 𝑓𝑓𝑠𝑠 = 415𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 𝑣𝑣𝑠𝑠 = 44.7𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠 𝜈𝜈 = 343𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠
1
𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑜 = 𝑓𝑓𝑠𝑠 𝑣𝑣𝑠𝑠
1−
𝜈𝜈
1
𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑜 = 415𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻
44.7𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠
1− 𝜈𝜈 343𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠
343𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠 𝜆𝜆′ = = = 0.719𝑚𝑚
𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑜 477𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻
𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑜 = 477𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻
METHOD 2
Given information
𝑓𝑓𝑠𝑠 = 415𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 𝑣𝑣𝑠𝑠 = 44.7𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠 𝜈𝜈 = 343𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠
𝜈𝜈
𝜈𝜈 − 𝑣𝑣𝑠𝑠
343 𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠
𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑜 = 415 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻
343 𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠 − 44,7 𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠
𝑓𝑓0 = 477 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻
MOVING OBSERVER
𝑣𝑣0 𝑣𝑣0 𝑣𝑣0

𝑓𝑓0 = 𝑓𝑓𝑠𝑠 + = 𝑓𝑓𝑠𝑠 1 + 𝑓𝑓0 = 𝑓𝑓𝑠𝑠 1 +
𝜆𝜆 𝑓𝑓𝑠𝑠 𝜆𝜆 𝑣𝑣
𝜈𝜈 + 𝑣𝑣𝑜𝑜
𝜈𝜈
𝑣𝑣0
Observer moving towards 𝑓𝑓0 = 𝑓𝑓𝑠𝑠 1 +
𝑣𝑣
stationary source
𝜈𝜈 + 𝑣𝑣𝑜𝑜
𝜈𝜈
Observer moving away 𝑣𝑣0

from stationary source 𝑓𝑓0 = 𝑓𝑓𝑠𝑠 1 −
𝑣𝑣
𝜈𝜈 − 𝑣𝑣𝑜𝑜
𝜈𝜈
GENERAL CASE
Numerator: plus sign applies

when observer moves towards
the source
𝑣𝑣0
1±
𝑓𝑓0 = 𝑓𝑓𝑠𝑠 𝑣𝑣
𝑣𝑣𝑠𝑠
1∓
𝑣𝑣
Denominator: minus sign applies
when source moves towards
𝑣𝑣 ± 𝑣𝑣𝑜𝑜 the observer
𝑓𝑓0 = 𝑓𝑓𝑠𝑠
𝑣𝑣 ∓ 𝑣𝑣𝑠𝑠
The siren on ambulance is emitting a sound whose frequency is
2450 Hz. The speed of sound is 343 m/s
a) If the ambulance is stationary and you are sitting in a parked
car, what are the wavelength and frequency of the sound you
hear?
b) Suppose the ambulance is moving toward you at the speed of 26.8
m/s, determine the wavelength and frequency of the sound you
hear
c) If the ambulance is moving toward you at a speed of 26.8m/s
and you are moving toward it at a speed of 14m/s, find the
wavelength and frequency of the sound you hear
b) Suppose the ambulance is moving toward you at the speed of 26.8
m/s, determine the wavelength and frequency of the sound you
hear
1 𝑣𝑣
𝑓𝑓0 = 𝑓𝑓𝑠𝑠 𝑣𝑣𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑓0 = 𝑓𝑓𝑠𝑠
1− 1 − 𝑣𝑣𝑠𝑠
𝑣𝑣
343𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠
1 𝑓𝑓0 = 2450
𝑓𝑓0 = 2450𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 343𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠 − 26.8𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠
1−
𝑓𝑓0 ≈ 2660𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 𝑓𝑓0 ≈ 2660𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻
c) If the ambulance is moving toward you at a speed of 26.8m/s
and you are moving toward it at a speed of 14m/s, find the
wavelength and frequency of the sound you hear
𝑣𝑣𝑜𝑜 Given information

1 ± 𝑣𝑣
𝑓𝑓0 = 𝑓𝑓𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑓𝑠𝑠 = 2450 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 𝑣𝑣𝑠𝑠 = 44,7 𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠
𝑣𝑣
1 ∓ 𝑠𝑠
𝑣𝑣 𝜈𝜈 = 343𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠 𝑣𝑣𝑜𝑜 = 26,8 𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠
𝑣𝑣𝑜𝑜
1 + 𝑣𝑣
𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑜 = 𝑓𝑓𝑠𝑠 𝑣𝑣
1 − 𝑠𝑠
𝑣𝑣
14𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠
1+
𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑜 = 2450
1− 𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑜 ≈ 2770 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻
16.10 Applications of Sound in Medicine
Learning objectives
• Discuss medical uses of ultrasound waves
Applications of Sound in Medicine
• As the ultrasound wave travels through
tissues, it is subject to a number of
interactions.
• The most important features are as
follows:
 Reflection
 Refraction
 Attenuation/absorption
• Ultrasound waves are reflected at the surfaces between the
tissues of different density,
• If the difference in density is increased, the proportion of
reflected sound is increased, and the proportion of transmitted
sound is proportionately decreased.
Cavitron Ultrasonic Surgical Aspirator (CUSA)
• Neurosurgeons use CUSA to

remove brain tumors once thought
to be inoperable
• Ultrasonic sound waves cause the
tip of the probe to vibrate at 23
kHz and shatter sections of the
tumor that it touches.
Doppler flowmeter
• The device measures the speed of blood flow, using a
transmitting and receiving elements placed directly on the skin
• When the sound is reflected from the red blood cells, its
frequency is changed in a kind of Doppler effect because the
cells are moving.
The Doppler flowmeter can be used to detect motion of a

fetal heart as early as 8-10 weeks after conception
16.11 The Sensitivity of the Human Ear

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WAVES, SOUND AND OPTICS

LECTURER : MR. N MANDIWANA

OFFICE : NSB 208

Chapter 26: The Refraction of Light:

16.2 Periodic waves (Done in High School)

16.5 The Nature of Sound Waves

16.7 Sound Intensity

16.8 Decibels (Sound intensity levels)

16.9 The Doppler Effect (Done in High School)

16.10 Application of Sound in Medicine

16.11 Sensitivity of the human ear (Self Study)

• Describe the concept of a wave and discuss the physical

• Distinguish between transverse and longitudinal waves

1. A wave is a traveling disturbance.

• A transverse wave is one in which the disturbance occurs

• A longitudinal wave is one in which the disturbance occurs parallel

• Discuss the physical meaning of the terms wavelength and

• Relate the wave speed to its frequency and wavelength

• Explain the production of sound by molecular-scale compressions

• Define audible, infrasonic and ultrasonic sound waves

LONGITUDINAL SOUND WAVES

• Consider sound from a loudspeaker

• Individual air molecules are not

• The frequency is the number of cycles per second.

• Loudness is an attribute of a sound that depends primarily on

• Discuss the average intensity of a wave, the threshold of hearing,

• The amount of energy transported per second is called the

𝑃𝑃 12 × 10−5 𝑊𝑊 −5 𝑊𝑊. 𝑚𝑚−2

If the power emitted by the sources, P, is constant then

𝐼𝐼1 𝑃𝑃⁄4𝜋𝜋𝑟𝑟12 𝑟𝑟22

Thus 𝑃𝑃 = 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 = 5.9 × 103 𝑊𝑊 ⁄𝑚𝑚2 𝜋𝜋 1.8 × 10−2 𝑚𝑚 2 = 6.005 𝑊𝑊

• How our ears perceive sound can be more accurately described in

• 𝐼𝐼0 = 1 × 10−12 𝑊𝑊. 𝑚𝑚−2 is the lowest or threshold intensity of

• The Intensity level 𝛽𝛽, is defined in terms of a ratio, it is a

Note that log(1)=0, so when the intensity of sound is equal to the

Audio system 1 produces a sound intensity level of 90.0 dB, and

• For 𝛽𝛽2 = 93𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

The ratio of their intensities is obtained from

𝐼𝐼2 𝐼𝐼1 𝐼𝐼2 ⁄𝐼𝐼0

• Discuss the physical origins of the Doppler effect

• Apply the equations of Doppler-shifted frequencies to moving

The Doppler effect is the change in frequency or pitch of the

source moving away from a 1

𝑓𝑓0 = 477 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻

𝑣𝑣0 𝑣𝑣0 𝑣𝑣0

Observer moving away 𝑣𝑣0

Numerator: plus sign applies

𝑓𝑓0 ≈ 2660𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 𝑓𝑓0 ≈ 2660𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻

𝑣𝑣𝑜𝑜 Given information

• Discuss medical uses of ultrasound waves

• Neurosurgeons use CUSA to

The Doppler flowmeter can be used to detect motion of a

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