4.

6 More about stationary waves on a string

1. Define a node
2. Define an antinode
3. Write an expression linking the distance between adjacent nodes and
the wavelength.
4. Define frequency.
5. Define phase difference.
6. Define the term principle of superposition for two waves.
7. Explain why standing waves that vibrate freely do not transfer energy
to their surroundings
 4.6 More about stationary waves on a string
1. Node – Fixed point in a stationary wave pattern where the amplitude is zero.
2. Antinode – Fixed point in a stationary wave pattern where the amplitude is a
maximum.
3. Distance between adjacent nodes is equal to one half wavelengths
4. Frequency – The number of cycles of a wave that pass a point per second.
5. Phase difference – The difference in distances from two coherent sources to an
interference fringe.
6. Superposition – The effect of two waves adding together when they meet
7. Because the nodes and antinodes are at fixed positions, no energy is transferred
in a freely vibrating stationary wave pattern.
Vibrations
A controlled way of producing standing
waves is shown in the figure.

A string or wire is tied at one end to a

mechanical vibrator. The other end is
passed over a pulley and held under
tension by a counterweight.

As the frequency of the generator is increased, different stationary waves are seen on the string. The
length of the string is kept constant and with a node on either end.

The first harmonic or fundamental frequency is the lowest possible frequency that gives a pattern. This
can be seen in the figure, it has a node at either end and an antinode in the centre.

The length of the string, L , is equal to one half the wavelength.

1 𝑐 𝑐
𝐿= 𝜆1 𝜆 1=2 𝐿 𝑓 1= = C = speed of the wave
2 𝜆1 2𝐿
The second harmonic
The next stationary wave pattern to
form is called the second harmonic, as
seen in the figure.

The pattern has two loops, with a

node at the centre as well as at either
end. There are now two antinodes.

The length of the string, L , is equal to one complete wavelength.

𝑐 𝑐
𝐿= 𝜆2 𝜆 2= 𝐿 𝑓 2=
𝜆2
=
𝐿 C = speed of the wave

The frequency of the second harmonic is double the frequency of

𝑓 2 =2 𝑓 1
the first harmonic/fundamental frequency
The third harmonic
The next stationary wave pattern to
form is called the third harmonic, seen
as in the figure.

The pattern has three loops, with two

nodes at the centre as well as at either
end. There are now three antinodes.

The length of the string, L , is equal to one and a half wavelengths.

3 2 𝑐 3𝑐
𝐿= 𝜆 𝜆 3= 𝐿 𝑓 3= = C = speed of the wave
2 3 3 𝜆3 2𝐿
The frequency of the third harmonic is three times as large as the
𝑓 3 =3 𝑓 1
frequency of the fundamental frequency
Harmonics
First Harmonic (fundamental frequency)
f = f0 λ = 2 L
2 nodes and 1 antinode

Second Harmonic (first overtone)

f = 2f0 λ = L
3 nodes and 2 antinodes

Third Harmonic (second overtone)

f = 3f0 λ = ⅔ L
4 nodes and 3 antinodes

Forth Harmonic (third overtone)

f = 4f0 λ = ½ L
5 nodes and 4 antinodes
Harmonics In musical terms
𝑐 𝑐
𝑓 1= = 1st octave
𝜆1 2𝐿
𝑐 𝑐
𝑓 2= = =2 𝑓 1 2nd octave
𝜆2 𝐿

𝑐 3𝑐
𝑓 3= = ¿3 𝑓 1 3rd octave
𝜆3 2 𝐿
𝑐 2𝑐
𝑓 4= = =4 𝑓 1
𝜆4 𝐿

𝑐 5𝑐 Octaves increase each

𝑓 5= = =5 𝑓 1 time the number of
𝜆5 2 𝐿 loops increase.
Explanation of stationary wave patterns on a vibrating string
In the arrangement in the figure, consider what happens to a
progressive wave sent out by the vibrator.

When a wave arrives at the end with the pulley, the crest of a
wave reflects and travels back along the string as a trough,
reversing its phase.

When a wave arrives back at the vibrator, it reflects and

reverses direction again, becoming a crest once more. If this
crest is reinforced by another crest created by the vibrator, a
standing wave is formed.

The key condition is the time take for the wave to travel along
the string and back. To form standing waves, this should be
equal to the time taken for a whole number of cycles of the
vibrator.
Explanation of stationary wave patterns on a vibrating string
The time taken for a wave to travel 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 2 𝐿
𝑡= =
along the string and back is equal to 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑐
The time taken for the vibrator to 𝑚
𝑡=
pass through a whole number of 𝑓
cycles is equal to m = a whole number
f = frequency of the generator

Therefore,

2𝐿 𝑚 𝑚𝑐 𝑐 2𝐿
= 𝑓 = 𝜆= =
𝑐 𝑓 2 𝐿 𝑓 𝑚
Stationary waves are formed at frequencies, f, 2f, 3f. 4f, etc.

The length of the vibrating section of the string, where m =

equal to a whole number of half wavelengths.
Tuning an instrument
The pitch of a note corresponds to the frequency, the higher the frequency the higher the pitch.
The pitch of a stretched string can be altered by changing the tension
• Raising the tension, increases the pitch.
• Lowering the tension, lowers the pitch.

The pitch of a stretched string can be altered by changing the length of the string
• Shortening the length, increases the pitch.
• Lengthening the string, lowers the pitch.
By changing the length and altering the tension, a vibrating string or wire can be tuned to the same
pitch as a tuning fork. However the sound of the vibrating wire includes all the harmonics whereas
the tuning fork vibrates at a single frequency.

√
The wire is tuned when its first
• μ – The mass per unit length of
harmonic is the same as the tuning fork
1 𝑇 the string.
frequency. It can be shown that the first
𝑓= • – The length of the string.
harmonic frequency depends on the
tension and the mass per unit length of 2𝑙 𝜇 • – The tension in the string.
the wire, according to the equation.
Practice

A piano string has a tension of 681N. It vibrates with a fundamental frequency (first harmonic) of 92.5Hz
and has a mass per unit length of 1.87 × 10–2 . Calculate the length of the string.

𝑓 =
1
2𝑙 √ 𝑇
𝜇
𝑙=
1
2𝑓 √ 𝑇
=
1
𝜇 2 𝑥 92.5
The figure below shows a string stretched between fixed ends.
√ 681
1.87 𝑥 10 −2
=1𝑚

Draw onto the figure the first overtone (second harmonic)

mode of vibration.

State how you could make a string on a stringed instrument vibrate in this mode of vibration.

Pluck the string lightly in the center

Practice

A violin string has a length of 327mm and produces a note of frequency 440Hz.
Calculate the frequency of the note produced when the same string is shortened or
“stopped” to a length of 219mm and the tension remains constant.

𝑓 =
1
2 𝑙
𝑇
𝜇 √
440=
1
2 𝑥 ( 327 𝑚𝑚 )
𝑇
𝜇 √
𝑓 =440 (
327 𝑚𝑚
219 𝑚𝑚
=
1
) 327 𝑚𝑚
2 𝑥 ( 327 𝑚𝑚 ) 219 𝑚𝑚
𝑇
𝜇 ( )√
𝑓 = 657 𝐻𝑧
Check
Check

𝑓 =
1
2 𝑙 √ 𝑇
𝜇

𝑓 =300 𝑥 √ 2=
𝑓 =424 𝐻𝑧
1
2𝑙
( √ 2)
√ 𝑇
𝜇
Check
1 1
𝑇= = =20 𝑚𝑠
𝑓 50
𝑇h𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 ,10𝑚𝑠=𝑜𝑛𝑒h𝑎𝑙𝑓 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒
Consolidation - Complete summary questions 4.6 (page 63)