Historical Development and Characteristics of Structural Steels Corrosion, Fire Protection and Fatigue Considerations

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT AND CHARACTERISTICS OF
STRUCTURAL STEELS
CORROSION, FIRE PROTECTION AND FATIGUE
CONSIDERATIONS
©Teaching Resource in Design of Steel Structures

IIT Madras, SERC Madras, Anna Univ., INSDAG 1
Layout of the Lecture
• Historical Development of Steel
• Metallurgy of steel
• Production Process
• Mechanical properties
• Special steels
• Corrosion aspects
• Fire Engineering of steel structures
• Fatigue considerations

Early constructions in • Indus Valley, Greeks and
Egyptians (1000 BC)
Steel
• Wrought Iron as tie bars in
Haghia Sophia (6th
Century)
• Galleries for house of
Commons and railings for
St.Paul’s cathedral (17th
Century)
• 18th Century refractory
furnace - Coalbrookadale
bridge
• 1855 Henry Bessemer
invented the modern steel
making
Iron & Steel Tradition of • Our Great Epics
India • Iron Pillar of Mehrauli
• Dwaja Stamba - a rustless
wonder for 1.5 millennia !
• Rabindra Sethu!
• Numerous Steel
monuments of colonial past
• Second Hooghly and
Jogighopa Bridges- Steel
intensive constructions
• Visionaries like Tata, Pandit
Nehru and Visweswaraya
have sown the seed for
development in Steel
Into the Lecture …...
• Historical Development of Steel 
• Metallurgy of steel 
• Special steels

What do we do in these situations? And Why
should we teach the students a little bit of
metallurgy?
• Bhai Sahib, I saw some pipes lying in your
back door, can I use them as purlins for your
shop floor extension shed?
• A failure investigation report say “ …..the
bolts have matensitic structure in
microstructure analysis”.
• “After exposure to fire the steel member a
hard ness value of 345 PHN”.

The world has become cramped ? ! !
• So do Engineering
disciplines
• No Single conventional
Eng. discipline can exist
on its own
• Structural Steel
Construction, Metallurgy
and Mechanical
• Engineering disciplines
Air Crossing ! crisscross each other !

(a) Body centred (b) Face centred
cube (bcc) cube (fcc)
Crystal structure of Iron

Temp 0 C
1600 1539 0 C

1400 0 C
1400
bcc
Non-Magnetic
1200 
Heating Cooling
1000 fcc 910 0 C

800 768 0C
600
bcc

Magnetic
400
200
0
Time
Allotropy of Iron
Steel is alloy of Iron and Carbon !
(Point to ponder)
More Carbon more

strength? - Yes
But what happens to
Carbon
-- ductility? 
-Ferrite Adding Carbon - Is it the
only way to get strength?
Is there a limit for carbon
content in structural steel?
Carbon content in
Structural steel- 0.12-.25%
Interstitial solid solution
of Carbon in Iron
Peritectic
0.1%  ferrite
1534 0C point1493
0
C Liquid
1400
+ Eutectic
point Fe3C+
1200 Liquid
phase Liquid
1147 0C  + Fe3C
1000 910Austenite
0
C  +  Austenite +
800 723 0C Cementite
600 Eutectoid
0.02%  ferrite
point
400  + Fe3C
Ferrite +
200 Cementite
0.0 0.8% 4.3% Cementite
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 6.67

% Carbon
Iron – Iron-Carbon phase diagram
Temp 0 C
1200
11470C
i Austenite
1000
Austenite + Cementite
j
800 7230C
k
Ferrite + Austenite
600 Eutectoid
Point
Ferrite
400
Cementite + Pearlite
Ferrite + Pearlite
200 Hypo-Eutectoid steel Hyper-Eutectoid steel

Weight % of Carbon
l
a b c d
0.0
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2
The Eutectoid section of the Iron – Iron
Carbon phase diagram
C
Austenite Ferrite
Austenite Ferrite Pearlite Ferrite
nuclei
(a) (b) (c)
Different stages of formation of Pearlite

(a)100% Ferrite in extra
low carbon steel
(b)Ferrite+Pearlite
(c) 100% Pearlite in
Eutectoid steel
(d)Pearlite+Cementite in
hyper-Eutectoid steel
SOURCE: Thelning K.E., “Steel and its heat
treatment”, Butterworths, (1984).
Microstructures of steels
Are there any their any parameters which
increases strength of steel? Yes, Grain size
k
f y  f0 
d
•Using temperature control we can achieve small

grain size
•Using Mechanical pressure during rolling we can
get smaller grain size
Temp 0
C
800
Eutectoid temperature
600 Full
annealing
Normalise
400 Oil
Water quench
quench
200
Mantensite+
Mantensite Pearlite Course Pearlite
Fine Pearlite
0.
0 1 10 100100 10 10
0 4 5
Time in Seconds
Variation of microstructure as a
function of cooling
Are there any their any parameters which increases
strength of steel? Yes, Additive metals
-Manganese
-
Ferrite
Substitution solid solution of Manganese in Iron
How much can we add? It Should not exceed Ceq(0.45)

Ceq =%C + % Mn/6 + (% Cr + % Mo + % V)/5+(% Ni + % Cu)/15
What happens then (Ceq >0.45)? Welding becomes a problem !!

Points to Ponder about
steel!
• More carbon : more strength; but

negatively affect the important property
of ductility!
• Smaller the grain size greater the
strength (Production control)
• Smaller additive metals also increases
the strength of steel - HSLA steels


• Special steels

• Iron ore, Limestone and
coal is fed into the BF
• Liquid pig iron collects at
the bottom of BF(C-
4.0%;Mn-.5%;P-0.12%;S-
0.05%)
• Hot metal is charged into
Steel making vessel.
Oxygen is blown in a
controlled manner to
reduce carbon and
impurities like silicon,
manganese, phosphorous
and sulphur . Final steel is
produced. (C-
0.1-.25%;Mn-.4-1.2%;P-
0.05%;S-0.05%).
Source:Adams P.F., Krentz H.A. and Kulak G.L., • Oxygen less than 30 ppm -
“Limit state design in structural design – SI fully killed steel; 150 ppm
Units”, Canadian Institute of Steel Construction semi-killed steel.
(1979). ©Teaching Resource in Design of Steel Structures
Ingot slab bloom Billet
Basic shapes and their relative proportions

Molten steel
Primary rolls for plates Primary rolls for structural shapes



• Special steels 

Tensile strength of steel
Lc
t
r Area=S0-
Standard tensile
d
test specimen
F L
F
Deformed
regions
Luder’s bands in
tensile test specimen
F F
Moving edges of
Luder’s band
Area=S-
Tensile test
specimen before
F F rupture
L
f Variation Esh
Elastic due to
range Luder’s
bands
fy
Plastic Strain Stress strain curve
range hardenin for sharp yielding
g range structural steels
yy sh  10y

Uniform
 Non-uniform
f plastic plastic
fy 0.2% proof
stress
Stress strain curve for Elastic
continuously yielding
structural steels 0.2%
strain
y
©Teaching Resource in Design of Steel Structures 
Hardness
Hardness is regarded as the resistance of a material to

indentations and scratching. This is generally
determined by forcing an indentor on to the surface.
(a) Brinell hardness Square based

diamond pyramids
of 135O included
angle
(b) Vickers Hardness Diamond core with

120 O included
angle

Experimental
set up for
notch
h1
toughness test
Energy absorbed
h2
c
Transition
Temperature Region of
Shear
(Ductile)
Region of failure
Cleavage(brit
tle) failure Ductile to
brittle
transition curve
Temperature
Strain rate
Test specimen for notch
Effect of temperature on notch
toughness test toughness of steel
Effect of strain rate on the yield strength of
steel
fy
f y @( 2 x10 4 )
1.2 . 0.33
fy
 0.973  0.45 
f y @( 2 x10 4 )
1.1
Strain rate in
seconds-1
1.0
10-5 10-4 10-3 10-2 10-1

Some Mechanical properties of structural Steel
Type of Design- UTS Yield strength Elongat Charpy V -

steel ation (MP (Mpa) ion notch
a) Thickness (mm) Gauge values
<20 20- >40 Joules
40 (min)
Standard Fe 410 250 24 230 23 27
structura 410A 0
l steel Fe 410 250 24 230 23 27
410B 0
Fe 410 250 24 230 23 27
410C 0
High St58HT 580 360 0.0 1.00 20 -
tensile 5
structura ST55- 550 360 .05 1.00 20 -
l steel HTW


• Mechanical properties
• Special steels

• Corrosion aspects

Special steels
• Stainless steels
Stainless Steel grades and their usage
Grade of Usage
stainless steel
316 (18% Cr) Profiled roofing, cladding, gutters,
facades and hand railings—in
highly polluted environments
304 (18% Cr- Decorative elements in areas near
(% Ni) coast line. Also for kitchen and
sanitary wares—coastal and less
polluted areas
430 (17% Cr) Roofing, gutters, decorative wall
tiles, hallow structural sections—
non-polluted environments
409 (11% Cr) Painted roofing-- non-polluted
environments
Cold rolled steel and cold forming of
steel
• Unheated slabs are rolled at ambient temperature

into thin sheets (.3mm-8mm)
• Results in smooth surface and improved
mechanical properties
• Cold forming of hold /cold rolled sheets
• CF sheets are basically low carbon steels which
are reheated to 6500C to recrystalise ferrite to get
finer grain size

TMCP steels and HSLA steels
• Thermo-Mechanically Controlled Process (TMCP)

steels are becoming popular in obtaining high
strength steels of yield strength of 800 MPa and
thickness even beyond 40 mm.
• High Strength Low Alloy(HSLA) also are very

popular which requires very good process
control.

Fire resistant steels
Chemical composition of fire resistant steel
C Mn Si S P Mo+Cr
FRS  0.20  1.50  0.50  0.04  0.04  1.00
% % % 0% 0% %
Mild  0.23  1.50  0.40  0.05  0.05 -
Steel % % % 0% 0%
•Very cost effective compared to structural steel

•FRS are available in India
•Very popular and cost effective - Japanese
experience

• Special steels

• Fire Engineering of 
steel structures

Metal Connection
A C
Electrolyte
Mechanism of corrosion as a
miniature battery
Anode
Drop of water
A C
Cathode
Metal bar
Mechanism of Corrosion in steel
Types of corrosion
Drop of Water
C A
C
A
Mechanism of crevice corrosion The mechanism of fretting corrosion
F
Galvanic corrosion
Hydrogen C
embritlement A
Bacterial corrosion
F
IIT Madras, SERC Madras, Anna Univ., INSDAG
Mechanism of stress
36
corrosion
Methods of prevention corrosion - Simple
procedures






Simple orientation of members
Detailing to enhance air
movement between
joints

Simple rule:
 •Eliminate the electrolyte
•Avoid simultaneous
presence of water and oxygen
Is Corrosion a real Problem?
• Indian designers feel that steel corrodes most in
India. Is it true?
• Steel corrodes all over the world! But they are
better managed in the western countries!
• Excellent protective coatings which retain their
life even up to 20 years are available!
• Corrosion-where does it matter? Normal inland
there is no problem! Exposed conditions
ofcourse do need attention.
• Corrosion is no more a disincentive for not using
steel in housing sector!


• Special steels

• Fire Engineering of 
steel structures
• Fatigue considerations 

Positive points of steel as a
construction material under fire
• Damage to strength of steel due to fire is
reversible in most of the cases
• Using the principle “ if the member is straight
after the fire - the steel is O.K” many of the
members could be salvaged.
• Up to about 2150C steel retains its strength
• In the case of concrete, at 2350C turns pink; 5900C
turns red and irreversible damage after 6000C
• Steel exposed to 6000C could be strengthened
and reused.
Typical fire loads and behaviour of steel
under fire
Examples of fire load in various structures

Type of steel structure Kg wood / m2
School 15
Hospital 20
Hotel 25
Office 35
Departmental store 35
Textile mill show room >200

Typical fire loads and behaviour of steel
under fire
0
C
Furnace
1000 temperature
Unprotected steel
500
Fire protected steel

temperature
0
30 60 90
Time (Minutes)
1.5
Coeff. of thermal
expansion (x 105)
1.0
0.5 Young’s modulus

Yield stress ratio ratio
200 400 600 800 1000

Temperature 0C
Mechanical properties of steel at elevated

temperatures

Fire Engineering of steel structures- very well
developed in the literature
D t Hp
Hp =2D+B
=2D+3B-2t
B
High Hp / A Low Hp / A
Hp =2D+2B Hp
Value Value
=2D+4B-2t
The section factor Some typical values of HP of

concept fire protected steel sections
Methods of fire protection
• Spray protection
• Board protection
• Intumescent coatings
• Concrete encasement?

• Metallurgy of steel
• Production Process 
• Mechanical properties 
• Special steels 
• Corrosion aspects 

• Fatigue considerations 



Stress
d concentrations in
>
the presence of
Stress notches and
m n concentration m n holes
Hole Notch
 
+
 Crack growth
Fatigue - and fatigue
crack failure under
Applied cyclic stress
cyclic load
Crack length
Crack length 3
 2
1
Number of cycles
290
in MPa (S) 260 S-N
230 Curve
Stress
range
200
170 Endurance Limit
140
103 104 105 106 107
Cycles of stress for failure (N)
S-N diagram for fatigue life assessment

Modified Goodman diagram for fatigue resistant
design of steel structures

Fillet Weld Point of stress
concentration
F F
Stress >F
concentration
at the weld toe F
Schematic stress
diagram
Direction of applied stress
Class ‘F’
detailing
according to
IS:1024 (1968)
Weldement

THANK YOU VERY
MUCH !


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HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT AND CHARACTERISTICS OF

©Teaching Resource in Design of Steel Structures

©Teaching Resource in Design of Steel Structures

©Teaching Resource in Design of Steel Structures

©Teaching Resource in Design of Steel Structures

©Teaching Resource in Design of Steel Structures

Crystal structure of Iron

©Teaching Resource in Design of Steel Structures

More Carbon more

0.0 0.8% 4.3% Cementite

0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 6.67

200 Hypo-Eutectoid steel Hyper-Eutectoid steel

Different stages of formation of Pearlite

©Teaching Resource in Design of Steel Structures

•Using temperature control we can achieve small

Substitution solid solution of Manganese in Iron

How much can we add? It Should not exceed Ceq(0.45)

What happens then (Ceq >0.45)? Welding becomes a problem !!

• More carbon : more strength; but

©Teaching Resource in Design of Steel Structures

Basic shapes and their relative proportions

Primary rolls for plates Primary rolls for structural shapes

©Teaching Resource in Design of Steel Structures

©Teaching Resource in Design of Steel Structures

yy sh  10y

Hardness is regarded as the resistance of a material to

(a) Brinell hardness Square based

(b) Vickers Hardness Diamond core with

©Teaching Resource in Design of Steel Structures

10-5 10-4 10-3 10-2 10-1

©Teaching Resource in Design of Steel Structures

Type of Design- UTS Yield strength Elongat Charpy V -

©Teaching Resource in Design of Steel Structures

©Teaching Resource in Design of Steel Structures

• Unheated slabs are rolled at ambient temperature

©Teaching Resource in Design of Steel Structures

• Thermo-Mechanically Controlled Process (TMCP)

• High Strength Low Alloy(HSLA) also are very

©Teaching Resource in Design of Steel Structures

•Very cost effective compared to structural steel

©Teaching Resource in Design of Steel Structures

©Teaching Resource in Design of Steel Structures

©Teaching Resource in Design of Steel Structures

Examples of fire load in various structures

©Teaching Resource in Design of Steel Structures

Fire protected steel

0.5 Young’s modulus

200 400 600 800 1000

Mechanical properties of steel at elevated

©Teaching Resource in Design of Steel Structures

The section factor Some typical values of HP of

©Teaching Resource in Design of Steel Structures

©Teaching Resource in Design of Steel Structures

S-N diagram for fatigue life assessment

©Teaching Resource in Design of Steel Structures

©Teaching Resource in Design of Steel Structures

©Teaching Resource in Design of Steel Structures

©Teaching Resource in Design of Steel Structures

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