COMMUNICATION ELECTRONICS

LECTURE 1
INTRODUCTION
Ing. Daniel K. Ngala
Course Contents
1. Attenuator Design and Network
Transformation
L-attenuator, Image Parameter Design, T-
attenuator, Pi-attenuator, Cascaded attenuator
networks. Impedance transformations, constant
impedance inverters, Norton’s network
transformation, Bartlett bisection theorem.
2. Radio Frequency Amplifiers
Resonance, Circuit Q and Bandwidth, Small-
Signal RF Amplifier Design, Coupling Tuned
Circuits, Transformer Coupling, Double-Tuned
Circuits, IF Amplifiers, Ceramic Filters, RF
Power Amplifiers, Neutralization, Impedance
Matching Networks.
3 Phase-Locked Loop Technique
Principle of operation, phase detector, voltage controlled
oscillator, capture and locked range, Loop Frequency
Response, Transient response, applications of PLL:
demodulation technique, frequency synthesis, pulse
transmission synchronization.
4. Basic Television
TV Cameras, Raster Scan and Synchronizing Signals,
Color Television, Video Bandwidth and Resolution,
Transmitted Video and Audio Signals, TV Receivers:
Tuner, Detectors, Gated AGC, Video Amplifiers, Sync
Separator.
 Teaching Methods/Materials
• Most online
• Power point presentation mostly going to be
used.
– Some videos and pictures will be incorporated.
 ATTENUATORS
• An Attenuator is a special type of electrical or electronic
bidirectional circuit made up of entirely resistive elements.
• An attenuator is a two-port resistive network designed to
weaken or "attenuate" the power being supplied by a
source to a level that is suitable for the connected load
• The attenuator reduces the amount of power being
delivered to the connected load by either a single fixed
amount, a variable amount or in a series of known
switchable steps.
• Attenuators are generally used in radio, communication and
transmission line applications to weaken a stronger signal.
Examples of Attenuators
Attenuator Connection
 Forms of attenuators
• Simple attenuator networks (also known as "pads") can be
designed to produce a fixed degree of "attenuation" or to give
a variable amount of attenuation in pre-determined steps.
• Standard fixed attenuator networks generally known as an
"attenuator pad" are available in specific values from 0 dB to
more than 100dB.
• Variable and switched attenuators are basically adjustable
resistor networks that show a calibrated increase in
attenuation for each switched step, for example steps of -2dB
or -6dB per switch position.
• An Attenuator is a four terminal (two port) passive resistive
network (active types are also available which use transistors
and integrated circuits) designed to produce "distortionless"
attenuation of the output electrical signal at all frequencies by
an equal amount with no phase shift
• To achieve this attenuators should be made up of pure non-
inductive and not wirewound resistances, since reactive
elements will give frequency discrimination.
Simple Passive Attenuator
• Attenuators are the reverse of amplifiers in that they reduce gain
with the resistive voltage divider circuit being a typical
attenuator.
• The amount of attenuation in a given network is determined by
the ratio of: Output/Input.
• For example, if the input voltage to a circuit is 1 volt (1V) and the
output voltage is 1 milli-volt(1mV) then the amount of
attenuation is 1mV/1V
• However, using voltage, current or even power ratios to
determine or express the amount of attenuation that a resistive
attenuator network may have, called the attenuation factor, can
be confusing
• So for the passive attenuator its degree of attenuation is
normally expressed using a logarithmic scale which is given in
decibels (dB) making it easier to deal with such small numbers
 Degrees of Attenuation
• An attenuators performance is expressed by the number of
decibels the input signal has decreased per frequency decade
(or octave).
• Then by definition, the ratio between an input signal (Vin) and
an output signal (Vout) is given in decibels as:

• dBv = 20log10 (Vout/Vin)

• In passive attenuator circuits, it is often convenient to assign the
input value as the 0 dB reference point.
• This means that no matter what is the actual value of the input
signal or voltage, is used as a reference with which to compare
the output values of attenuation and is therefore assigned a 0
dB value.
• This means that any value of output signal voltage below this
reference point will be expressed as a negative dB value, (-
dB ).
• So for example an attenuation of -6dB indicates that the value
is 6 dB below the 0 dB input reference.
• Likewise, if the ratio of output/input is less than one (unity),
for example 0.707, then this corresponds to 20log(0.707) = -
3dB.
• If the ratio of output/input = 0.5, then this corresponds to 20
log(0.5) = -6 dB
 Example1
• A passive attenuator circuit has an insertion
loss of -32dB and an output voltage of 50mV.
What will be the value of the input voltage.
• This decrease in voltage, current or power expressed in
decibels by the insertion of the attenuator into an electrical
circuit is known as insertion loss
• And minimum loss attenuator designs match circuits of
unequal impedances with a minimum loss in the matching
network.
• Now we know that the passive attenuator reduces or
"attenuates" the power or voltage level of a signal, while
introducing little or no distortion and insertion loss, by an
amount expressed in decibels
 Passive Attenuator Designs
• There are many ways in which resistors can be arranged in
attenuator circuits with the Potential Divider Circuit being the
simplest type of passive attenuator circuit
• The potential or voltage divider circuit is generally known as
an "L-pad" attenuator because its circuit diagram resembles
that of an inverted "L".
• There are other common types of attenuator network as well
such as the "T-pad" attenuator and the "Pi-pad"(π) attenuator
depending upon how you connect together the resistive
components.
• These three common attenuator types are shown below.
Attenuator Types
• The above attenuator circuit designs can be arranged in either
"balanced" or "unbalanced" form with the action of both
types being identical.
• The balanced version of the "T-pad" attenuator is called the
"H-pad“ attenuator while the balanced version of the "π-pad"
attenuator is called the "O-pad" attenuator
• Bridged T-type attenuators are also available.
 Balanced and Unbalanced attenuators
• In an unbalanced attenuator, the resistive elements are
connected to one side of the transmission line only while the
other side is grounded to prevent leakage at higher
frequencies.
• Generally, the grounded side of the attenuator network has no
resistive elements and is therefore called the "common line".
• In a balanced attenuator configuration, the same number of
resistive elements are connected equally to each side of the
transmission line with the ground located at a centre point
created by the balanced parallel resistances.
• Generally, balanced and unbalanced attenuator networks can
not be connected together as this results in half of the
balanced network being shorted to ground through the
unbalanced configuration
Balance Step Passive Attenuator
 Switched Attenuators
• Instead of having just one attenuator to achieve the required
degree of attenuation
• Individual attenuator pads can be connected or cascaded
together to increase the amount of attenuation in given steps
of attenuation
• Multipole rotary switches, rocker switches or ganged push-
button switches can also be used to connect or bypass
individual fixed attenuator networks in any desired sequence
from 1dB to 100dB or more, making it easy to design and
construct switched attenuator networks, also known as a step
attenuator
• By switching in the appropriate attenuators, the attenuation can
be increased or decreased in fixed steps as shown below.
Switched Attenuator
• Here, there are four independent resistive attenuator
networks cascaded together in a series ladder network with
each attenuator having a value twice that of its predecessor,
(1-2-4-8)
• Each attenuator network may be switched "in" or "out" of the
signal path as required by the associated switch producing a
step adjustment attenuator circuit that can be switched from
0dB to -15dB in 1dB steps and the total circuit attenuation is
the sum of all four attenuators switched "in“
• So for example an attenuation of -5dB would require switches
SW1 and SW3 to be connected
• And an attenuation of -12dB would require switches SW3 and
SW4 to be connected,
 Attenuator Summary
• 1. An attenuator is a four terminal device that reduces the
amplitude or power of a signal without distorting the signal
waveform, an attenuator introduces a certain amount of loss.
• 2. The attenuator network is inserted between a source and a
load circuit to reduce the source signal's magnitude by a known
amount suitable for the load.
• 3. Attenuators can be fixed, fully variable or variable in known
steps of attenuation, -0.5dB, -1dB, -10dB,etc.
• 4. An attenuator can be symmetrical or asymmetrical in form
and either balanced or unbalanced.
• 5. Fixed attenuators also known as a "pad" are used to "match"
unequal impedances.
• 6. An attenuator is effectively the opposite of an amplifier. An
amplifier provides gain while an attenuator provides loss, or
gain less than 1 (unity).
• 7. Attenuators are usually passive devices made from simple
voltage divider networks. Switching between different
resistances forms adjustable stepped attenuators and
continuously adjustable ones using potentiometers.
• Fixed value attenuators are also called "attenuator pads" and
are used in radio frequency (Rf) transmission lines to lower
voltage, dissipate power, and to improve the impedance
matching between circuits.
• Line-level attenuators in pre-amplifier or power amplifier can
be as simple as a 0.5 watt potentiometer, or voltage divider L-
pad designed to reduce the amplitude of the audio signal that
reaches the speaker, reducing the volume of the output.
• In measuring signals, high power attenuator pads are used to
lower the amplitude of the signal a known amount to enable
measurements, or to protect the measuring device from high
signal levels that might damage it.
 Passive L-pad Attenuator
• In its most basic form, the L-pad Attenuator is nothing more
than a very simple voltage divider circuit used in many
electrical and electronic circuits to generate a lower voltage.
• The difference this time is that this type of attenuator is used
in frequency dependant circuits to create loss (attenuation) in
a transmission line or to match the impedances of unbalanced
source and load networks.
• The L-pad attenuator consists of two purely resistive elements
in series with each other connected across a voltage source
with the ratio between these two resistances forming a
voltage divider network as shown below.
Basic L-pad Attenuator Circuit
• The two resistors are connected in series across the input, and
the output across just one with the two resistive elements
forming the shape of an inverted letter "L" and hence their
name, "L-pad attenuators“
• For this types of circuit, attenuation is given as Vout/Vin.
• Input resistor R1 is in series with the output, while resistor R2
is in parallel with the output and therefore the load
• Then the output voltage provided by this "L" shaped
arrangement is divided by a factor equal to the ratio of these
two resistor values as shown.
• As the L-pad attenuator is made of purely resistive
components, there is no phase shift in the attenuator
• The insertion of the attenuator between the source and the
load must not alter the source voltage and therefore the
resistance seen by the source must always remain the same.
• As the two resistive elements have constant values, if the
impedance of the load is not infinite, the attenuation is
altered and so too is its impedance.
• As a result, the L-pad attenuator can only supply an
impedance match in one direction only.
• L-pad attenuators are commonly used in audio applications to
reduce a larger or more powerful signal while matching the
impedance between the source and load in providing
maximum power transfer.
• However, if the impedance of the source is different to the
impedance of the load, the L-pad attenuator can be made to
match either impedance but not both.
• This is because the arrangement of the resistive elements does
not produce the same impedance looking into the network
from both directions.
• In other words, the L-pad attenuator is an asymmetrical
attenuator and therefore, if an attenuation network is required
to match two unequal impedances in both directions, other
types of attenuator such as the symmetrical "T-pad" or the "Pi-
pad“ attenuator should be used.
L-pad Attenuator with Equal Impedances
• A passive attenuator is a resistive network designed to reduce
the power or signal level of an audio or radio frequency signal
without introducing any distortion to the signal.
• Sometimes the output from an audio amplifier maybe too
high and attenuation is required to feed this signal into a
loudspeaker.
• For example, lets assume we want to reduce the power being
delivered from an amplifier which has an output source
impedance, ( ZS ) of 8Ω feeding a loudspeaker load, ( ZL ) of
8Ω by 6dB
• The values of resistors R1 and R2 are as follows.
L-pad Attenuator Circuit
The equation for the L-pad attenuator circuit connected between
two equal impedances, ( ZS = ZL ) looking
in the direction of the source impedance, ZS will be.
• To simplify the design of the attenuator, a "K" value can be
used in the attenuator equation above to simplify the maths a
little.
• This "K" value is the ratio of the voltage, current or power
corresponding to a given value of attenuation
• The general equation for "K" is given as:
• Then in our example the "K" value for a
voltage attenuation of 6dB will be 10^(6/20) =
1.9953.
• Then between two equal impedances looking in the direction
of the source impedance ZS, the value of the series resistor,
R1 is 4Ω and the value of the parallel resistor, R2 is 8Ω.
• The problem with this type of L-pad attenuator configuration
is that the impedance match is in the direction of the series
resistor R1, while the impedance "mismatch" is towards the
parallel resistor R2.
• The problem with this is that as the level of attenuation is
increased this mismatch becomes increasingly larger and at
high values of attenuation the value of the parallel resistor
will become fractions of an ohm.
• For example, the values of R1 and R2 at an attenuation of -
32dB would be 7.8Ω and 0.2Ω, that's 200mΩ effectively
shorting out the loudspeaker which could have a serious
effect on the amplifiers output circuit.
• One way to increase attenuation without overloading the
source is to impedance match the circuit in the direction of
the load impedance, ZL.
• However, as we are now looking into the L-pad attenuator
circuit from the parallel resistor side, the equations are
slightly different.
• Then between equal impedances and with the impedance
match looking from the load, the values or resistors R1 and R2
are calculated as follows.
"Looking" from the Load
• If we now increase attenuation to -32dB, the
value of the resistors will become, R1 = 310Ω
and R2 = 8.2Ω respectively, and these values
are safe enough for the source circuit to which
it is connected.
 L-pad Attenuator with Unequal
Impedances
• we can also use the "L-pad attenuator" to match the
impedances of two unequal circuits.
• This impedance match may be in the direction of the larger or
the smaller impedance but not both.
• The configuration of the attenuator will be the same as
before, but the equations used in matching the two unequal
impedances are different
• Between two unequal impedances, the impedance matching
is towards the smaller of the two impedances from the
source.
Impedance Match towards the small
Impedance
Impedance Match towards the larger
Impedance
 Example No2
• A signal transmission line which has a source impedance of
75Ω is to be connected to a signal strength meter of
impedance 50Ω which has a maximum display of -12dB.
Calculate the values of resistors required in an L-pad
attenuator circuit to operate the meter at maximum power
(towards small impedance).
• With the impedance match towards the smaller 50Ω value,
resistors R1 and R2 are calculated as follows.
 Cont’d
• The L-pad attenuator can be used to perfectly match one
impedance to another providing a fixed amount of
attenuation, but the resulting circuit is "lossy“
• However, if a fixed amount of attenuation is of no importance
and only the minimum insertion loss is required between the
source and the load, the L-pad attenuator can be used to
match two impedances of unequal values using the following
equations to calculate resistors, R1 and R2.
Minimum Insertion Loss
• Where: resistor R1 is on the side of the larger impedance and
resistor R2 is on the side of the smaller impedance and in our
example above that would be 75Ω and 50Ω respectively.
• The minimum insertion loss in decibels of an L-pad attenuator
connected between a source and a load is therefore given as:
Minimum Attenuation in dB
 The T-pad Attenuator
• A T-pad attenuator is an unbalanced attenuator network
consisting of three non-inductive resistive elements connected
together to form a "T" configuration
• Although not common, this "T“ (tee) configuration can also be
thought of as a wye "Y" attenuator configuration as well.
• Unlike the previous L-pad Attenuator, which has a different
resistive value looking into the attenuator from either end
making it an asymmetrical circuit, the formation of the resistive
elements into a letter "T" shape means that the T-pad
attenuator has the same value of resistance looking from either
end
• This formation then makes the "T-pad attenuator" a perfectly
symmetrical attenuator enabling their input and output
terminals to be transposed
 T Pad Attenuator
•
Basic T-pad Attenuator Circuit
• It can be seen that the T-pad attenuator is symmetrical in its
design looking from either end and this type of attenuator
design can be used to impedance match either equal or
unequal transmission lines.
• Generally, resistors R1 and R2 are of the same value but when
designed to operate between circuits of unequal impedance
these two resistor can be of different values. In this instance
the T-pad attenuator is often referred to as a "taper pad
attenuator".
 The Attenuators "K" Factor
• The "K" factor, also known as the "impedance factor" is
commonly used with attenuators to simplify the design
process of complex attenuator circuits.
• This "K" factor or value is the ratio of the voltage, current or
power corresponding to a given value of attenuation. The
general equation for "K" is given as:
• So for example, the "K" value for a voltage attenuation of 6dB
will be 10^ (6/20) = 1.9953, and an attenuation of 18dB will be
10^ (18/20) = 7.9433, and so on.
• But instead of calculating this "K" value every time we want to
design a new attenuator circuit, we can produce a "K" factor
table for calculating attenuator loss as follows.
Attenuator Loss Table
 T-pad Attenuator with Equal Impedances

• We have said previously, that the T-pad attenuator is a

symmetrical attenuator design whose input and output
terminals can be transposed with each other.
• This makes the T-pad attenuator ideal for insertion between
two equal impedances ( ZS = ZL ) to reduce signal levels.
• In this case the three resistive elements are chosen to ensure
that the input impedance and output impedance match the
load impedance which forms part of the attenuator network.
• As the T-pad's input and output impedances are designed to
perfectly match the load, this value is called the "characteristic
impedance" of the symmetrical T-pad network
• Then the equations given to calculate the resistor values of a T-
pad attenuator circuit used for impedance matching at any
desired attenuation are given as:
T-pad Attenuator Equations
• where: K is the impedance factor from the
table above, and Z is the source/load
impedance
 Example 1
• A T-pad attenuator is required to reduce the level of an audio
signal by 18dB while matching the impedance of the 600Ω
network. Calculate the values of the three resistors required.
• Then resistors R1 and R2 are equal to 466Ω and resistor R3 is
equal to 154Ω, or the nearest preferred values.
• Again as before, we can produce standard tables for the
values of the series and parallel impedances required to
construct a 50Ω, 75Ω or 600Ω symmetrical T-pad attenuator
circuit as these values will always be the same regardless of
application.
• The calculated values of resistors, R1, R2 and R3 are given
below.
 T-pad Attenuator with Unequal
Impedances
• As well as using the T-pad attenuator to reduce signal levels in
a circuit with equal impedances, we can also use it for
impedance matching between unequal impedances ( ZS ≠
ZL ).
• When used for impedance matching, the T-pad attenuator is
called a Taper Pad Attenuator.
• However, to do so we need to modify the previous equations
a little to take into account the unequal loading of the source
and load impedances on the attenuator circuit. The new
equations become.
Taper Pad Attenuator Equations for
Unequal Impedances
 Example 2
• A taper pad attenuator connected to a load impedance of 50Ω
is required to reduce the level of an audio signal by 18dB from
an impedance source of 75Ω. Calculate the values of the three
resistors required.
• Then: Z1 = 75Ω (the largest impedance), Z2 = 50Ω (the
smallest impedance) and K = 18dB = 7.9433 from the table
above.
• So resistor R1 is equal to 15.67Ω, resistor R2 is equal to 62Ω
and resistor R3 is equal to 36Ω, or the nearest preferred
values.
 Balanced-T Attenuator
• The balanced T-pad attenuator or Balanced-T Attenuator for
short, uses two T-pad attenuator circuits connected together
to form a balanced mirror image network as shown below.
Balanced-T Attenuator Circuit
• The balanced-T attenuator is also called an H-pad attenuator
because the layout of its resistive elements form the shape of a
letter "H" and hence their name, "H-pad attenuators".
• The resistive values of the balanced-T circuit are firstly
calculated as an unbalanced T-pad configuration the same as
before, but this time the values of the series resistive in each leg
are halved (divided by two).
• The total calculated resistive value of the centre parallel resistor
remains at the same value but is divided into two with the
centre connected to ground producing a balanced circuit.
• Using the calculated values above for the unbalanced T-pad
attenuator gives, series resistor R1 = 466 ÷ 2 = 233Ω for all four
series resistors and the parallel shunt resistor, R2 = 154Ω the
same as before and these values can be calculated using the
following modified equations for a balanced-T attenuator.
Balanced-T Attenuator Equations
 The Pi-pad Attenuator
• As well as the T-pad attenuator we looked at previously, there is
another type of voltage-controlled attenuator design commonly
used in radio frequency and microwave transmission lines called
the Pi-pad Attenuator, or π-pad attenuator.
• The Pi-pad attenuator is so called because its design resembles
that of the Greek letter pi ( π ) meaning that it has one series
resistor and two parallel shunt resistors to ground at the input
and the output.
• The Pi-pad attenuator is another fully symmetrical purely
resistive network that can be used as a fixed attenuator
between equal impedances or for impedance matching
between unequal impedances. The circuit configuration of the
Pi-pad attenuator is given below.
Basic Pi-pad Attenuator Circuit
• We can see that the Pi-pad attenuator is symmetrical looking
at the attenuator from either end and this type of attenuator
design can be used to impedance match either equal or
unequal transmission lines.
• Generally, resistors R1 and R3 are of the same value but when
designed to operate between circuits of unequal impedance
these two resistors can be of different values.
 Pi-pad Attenuator with Equal Impedances
• We have said previously, that the Pi-pad attenuator is a
symmetrical attenuator design consisting solely of passive
resistor elements making it linear in its design allowing for its
input and output terminals to be transposed with each other.
• This makes the Pi-pad attenuator ideal for insertion between two
equal impedances ( ZS = ZL ) to reduce signal levels
• In this case the three resistive elements are chosen to ensure
that the input impedance and output impedance match the load
impedance which forms part of the attenuator network
• As the Pi-pad's input and output impedances are designed to
perfectly match the load, this value is called the "characteristic
impedance" of the symmetrical Pi-pad network.
• Then the equations given to calculated the resistor values of a Pi-
pad attenuator circuit used for impedance matching at any
desired attenuation are given as:
 Pi Pad Attenuator

•
Pi-pad Attenuator Equations
 Example 1
• A Pi-pad attenuator circuit is required to reduce the level of
an audio signal by 10dB while matching the impedance of a
75Ω network. Calculate the values of the three resistors
required.
• Then resistors R1 and R3 are equal to 144Ω and resistor R2 is
equal to 107Ω, or the nearest preferred values.
• Again as with the T-pad Attenuator, we can produce standard
tables for the values of the series and parallel impedances
required to construct a 50Ω, 75Ω or 600Ω symmetrical Pi-pad
attenuator circuit
• The calculated values of resistors, R1, R2 and R3 are given as.
• Note, as the amount of attenuation loss required by the Pi-pad
circuit increases, the impedance of the series resistor R2 also
increases while the parallel shunt impedance values of both
resistors R1 and R3 decreases.
• This is characteristic of a symmetrical Pi-pad attenuator circuit
used between equal impedances.
• Also, even at an attenuation of 32dB the series impedance
values are still fairly high and not in the one or two ohm range
as with the T-pad attenuator.
• This means then that a single Pi-pad attenuator network can
achieve much higher levels of attenuation compared to the
equivalent T-pad network as the parallel shunt impedances are
never less than the characteristic impedance of the
transmission line due to the extremely high "K" factor value.
• For example, a transmission line with a characteristic
impedance of 50Ω with an attenuation of -80dB would give
shunt resistors R1 and R3 a value of 50Ω each while the series
 Pi-pad Attenuator with Unequal
Impedances
• As well as using the Pi-pad attenuator to reduce signal levels
in a circuit with equal impedances, ( ZS = ZL ) we can also use
it for impedance matching of unequal source and load
impedances ( ZS ≠ ZL ).
• However, to do so we need to modify the previous equations
a little to take into account the unequal loading of the source
and load impedances on the attenuator circuit.
• The new equations given for calculating the resistive elements
of a Pi-pad attenuator for unequal impedances are.
Pi-pad Attenuator Equations for Unequal
Impedances
• where: K is the impedance factor, ZS is the larger of the source
impedance and ZL is the smaller of the load impedances.
• We can see that the equations for calculating the Pi
attenuators three resistor values are much more complex
when it is connected between unequal impedances due
to their effect on the resistive network.
• However, with careful calculation we can find the value
of the three resistances for any given network
impedance and attenuation as follows:
 Example 2
• An unbalanced non-symmetrical Pi-pad attenuator circuit is
required to attenuate a signal between a radio transmitter
with an output impedance of 75Ω and a power signal strength
meter of impedance 50Ω by 6dB. Calculate the values of the
required resistors.
Resistor R2 Value
Resistor R3 Value
Giving us the following nonsymmetrical Pi
attenuator circuit
 Balanced-Pi Attenuator
• The balanced-Pi attenuator or "Balanced-π Attenuator" for
short, uses an additional resistive element in the common
ground line to form a balanced resistive network as shown
below.
• The balanced-Pi attenuator is also called an O-pad attenuator
because the layout of its resistive elements form the shape
of a letter "O" and hence their name, "O-pad attenuators".
• The resistive values of the balanced-Pi circuit are firstly
calculated as an unbalanced Pi-pad configuration connected
between equal impedances the same as before, but this time
the value of the series resistor R2 is halved (divided by two)
placing half in each line as shown.
• The calculated resistive value of the two parallel shunt
resistors remain at the same.
• Using the values previously calculated above for the unbalanced Pi-
pad attenuator gives, series resistor R2 = 106.7÷2 = 53.4Ω for the
two series resistors and the parallel shunt resistors, R1, R3 =
144.4Ω the same as before.
• Pi-pad Attenuators are one of the most commonly used
symmetrical attenuator circuits and as such its design is used in
many commercially available attenuator pads.
• While the Pi-pad attenuator can achieve a very high level of
attenuation in one single stage, it is better to build a high loss
attenuator of over 30dB by cascading together several individual Pi-
pad sections so that the final level of attenuation is achieved in
stages.
• When this is done, the number of resistive elements required in
the design can be reduced as adjoining resistors can be combined
together
• So for the Pi-pad this simply means that the two adjoining parallel
shunt resistors can be added together.
• Thank YOU