PHARYNGEAL ARCHES

• Series of mesodermal thickenings appear in the wall of cranial part of primitive foregut, known as
pharyngeal arches.
• Each arch contains an outer lining of ectoderm, inner core of mesoderm, and an inner lining of
endoderm
. • At first there will be six arches, later the fifth arch disappears.
• Each arch extends in to the floor of primitive pharynx and meet’s its corresponding arch at the
midline.
• At this stage the cranial end of pharynx is separated from stomatodeum by buccopharyngeal
membrane.
• Buccopharyngeal membrane ruptures soon.
• In the gap between successive arches the endoderm is pushed outside and ectoderm is pushed
inside, giving rise to endodermal pouches and ectodermal clefts respectively.
• Each pharyngeal arch consists of 3 elements:
1. Skeletal element: It is cartilaginous in beginning, it remains as such or form bone or disappears.
2. Striated muscle: Supplied by special nerve of the arch, first attached with skeletal elements, may
retain or not retain these attachments in future. May subdivide to give distinct muscles. Sometimes
these muscles moves away from arch but takes it’s nerve with it.
3. Arterial arch (aortic arch): Arteries develop ventral and dorsal to foregut, known as ventral and
dorsal aortae respectively. Two arteries of a pharyngeal arch are connected by an aortic arch of its
own. Artery gets modified during the course of time.
• Important derivatives of pharyngeal arches: –
1. First arch (mandibular arch): Meckel’s cartilage, maleus, incus, muscles of mastication, etc.
2. – Second arch (hyoid arch) → Superior part of hyoid, stapes, styloid process, muscles of face, etc.
3. – Third arch → Greater part of hyoid, stylopharyngeus, etc.
4. – Fourth arch and sixth arch → Larynx (cartilaginous part), muscles of larynx and pharynx, etc
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 Development of PALATE
• Palate is developed from:
– Maxillary process, which is two in number.
– Frontonasal process
Steps of Fusion
• From each maxillary process, a plate like shelf grows medially
known as palatal process.
• Primitive palate is formed by the fusion of medial nasal folds.
• Medial nasal folds are folds of frontonasal process.
• Now palate proper is formed by the fusion of these three
components, i.e. two palatal processes and one primitive palate.
• Each palatal process fuses with posterior margin of primitive
palate.
• Each palatal processes fuses with each other at midline.
• Also palatal process fuses with lower free edge of nasal septum
separating nasal cavity into two.
• Most of palate gets ossified to form hard palate and unossified
posterior part forms soft palate
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 KIDNEY development
• Kidney develops from the intermediate cell mass.
• Intermediate cell mass lies between paraxial mesoderm and
lateral plate mesoderm.
• Paraxial mesoderm gives rise to somites.
• Intermediate cell masses extends craniocaudally on both
sides of primitive dorsal aorta.
• In cervical and upper thoracic region it shows segmentation
called nephrotomes.
• Remaining unsegmented portion below give rise to
nephrogenic cord.
• Nephrogenic cord later divides into 3parts,fromabove to
below pronephros, mesonephros, metanephros.
• Excretory tubules of kidney are formed from metanephros.
• Collecting part of kidney is formed from a diverticulum called
ureteric bud.
• Ureteric bud is derived from lower part of mesonephric duct.
• Horse-shoe kidney
—lower pole of two kidneys fuse together to form an isthmus
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 Development of PANCREAS
• Pancreas is developed from two endodermal buds
(ventral and dorsal buds), formed at the junction of
foregut and midgut.
• Dorsal bud lies at dorsal aspect of gut. Ventral bud
lies below hepatic bud.
• Large part of pancreas develops from dorsal bud.
• Ventral bud gives rise to inferior part of head of
pancreas and uncinate process.
• Dorsal bud gives rise to upper part of head of
pancreas, body and tail of pancreas.
• Dorsal and ventral buds give rise to primitive
ducts.
• Proximal part of the duct of dorsal bud form
accessory pancreatic duct.
• Distal part of duct of dorsal bud and duct of
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4
 Development of heart tube
• Mesodermal in origin.
• During 3rd week angioblastic cords are formed from intraembryonic
mesoderm.
• Angioblastic cords are paired endothelial strands formed in cardiogenic area.
• Cords undergo canalization and forms heart tubes.
• Firstly heart is right and left endothelial tubes which fuse together to form
single tube.
• Single tube undergo dilatation separated by constrictions from top to
bottom.
• These dilatations from above to below are later identified as: 1. Bulbus
cordis has three parts:
i. Truncus arteriosus: Distal 1/3rd part, forms ascending aorta and
pulmonary trunk, truncus arteriosus continuous distally with aortic sac.
ii. Conus: Middle 1/3rd, forms outflow tracts of ventricles.
iii. Proximal 1/3rd part, forms primitive right ventricle
2. Primitive ventricle, form trabeculated part of left ventricle.
3. Primitive atrium
4. Sinus venosus
• Sinus venosus has prolongations at caudal end called right and left horns.
• Each horn is joined by a vitelline vein, umbilical vein and common cardinal
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 Development of TONGUE
• Medial most part of first pharyngeal arches
proliferates and forms two lingual swellings.
• Lingual swellings are partially separated by a
median swelling called tuberculum impar.
• Another midline swelling called hypobranchial
eminence is also formed from mesoderm of 2nd,
3rd, and 4th arches.
• Anterior 2/3rd of tongue is formed by the fusion
of two lingual swellings with tuberculum impar.
• The cranial part of hypobranchial eminence (3rd
arch) give rise to posterior one third of tongue.
• Posterior most part is formed from fourth arch.
• Connective tissue is derived from mesenchyme. •
Tongue muscles are derived from occipital
myotomes. Anomalies Ankyloglossia (Tongue tie)
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 DEVELOPMENT OF THYROID
• Thyroid gland develops from an endodermal thyroid diverticulum arising
from the floor of pharynx
• At the floor of pharynx, medial ends of two mandibular arches are
separated by a midline swelling called tuberculum impar.
• Endodermal cells dorsal to tuberculum impar proliferate to cause a surface
elevation at the midline (at the junction of anterior one-third and posterior
two-thirds of tongue).
• Later, this elevation get depressed and cells get evaginated caudally, and
forms a narrow thyroid diverticulum.
• It grows downwards into the neck. As the lower end of diverticulum
reaches ventral to the proximal part of trachea, it bifurcates and forms a
bilobed mass. This bilobed mass develops into thyroid gland.
• Rest of diverticulum remains narrow and is known as thyroglossal duct
(usually disappears).
• The cranial end of disappeared thyroglossal duct persist as foramen
cecum.
• Lower end of thyroglossal duct may persist as pyramidal lobe.
• Parafollicular cells are derived from caudal pharyngeal complex called
ultimobranchial body.
• Remnants of thyroglossal ducts may sometimes results in thyroglossal
fistula.
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 KLINEFELTER SYNDROME
• • Male hypogonadism or testicular dysgenesis due to
two or more X and one or more Y chromosomes
respectively (trisomy).
• Incidence is 1 in 100 males
• Occurs due to nondisjunction of sex chromosomes
during meiosis.
• Extra X chromosome could be of maternal or paternal
origin.
• Risk of recurrence increases with maternal age.
• Clinical features:
– Testicular dysgenesis
—small testis and penis.
– Increased length between soles and pubic bones.
– Poorly developed secondary sexual characters. – High
pitched voice.
– Gynecomastia.
– Osteoporosis, due to deficient testosterone production.
– Mild mental retardation.
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 TURNER’S SYNDROME
• Hypogonadism.
• Due to complete or partial loss of one X
chromosome (monosomy).
• Incidence is 1 in 500 females.
• Monosomy occurs due to nondisjunction.
• Clinical features:
– Short stature.
– Webbing of neck.
– Broad chest.
– Low hairline.
– Cubitus valgus (increased carrying angle).
– Atrial septal defect.
– Low hair line.
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 DOWN SYNDROME
• Trisomy in chromosome 21.
• Incidence 1/700 live birth.
• Risk of incidence more in elderly gravida
(pregnancy at age 45 years or more).
• Causes are nondisjunction, translocation, and
mosaicism.
• Clinical features:
– Mental retardation.
– Flat face.
– Small, low bridged nose.
– Mongoloid appearance due to epicanthal folds of
eye.
– Hypotonia.
– Atrial and ventricular septal defect and cataract.
 INTERATRIAL SEPTUM
• It develops from two septa (septum primum and septum secondum)
arising from the roof of atrial chamber.
• Septum primum arise from roof of atrial chamber and grows downwards
towards septum intermedium.
• Initially there will be a gap between septum primum and septum
intermedium known as foramen primum.
• Finally septum primum fuses with septum intermedium.
• Before the fusion, the upper part of septum primum breaks down leaving a
free upper edge.
• And a new foramen is created known as foramen secondum.
• Another septum called as septum secondum start to grow from the right
of the septum primum, towards septum intermedium.
• Another septum called as septum secondum start to grow from the right of
the septum primum, towards septum intermedium.
• Septum secondum overlaps the upper margin of septum primum, creating
an oblique passage between septum primum and secondum called as
foramen ovale.
• In fetal life, foramen ovale allows the blood to flow from right to left
atrium.
Finally by the fusion of septum secondum and septum primum, the foramen
ovale is obliterated.
• Thus upper and lower half of interatrial septum is formed by septum
 NOTOCHORD
• The cranial end of primitive streak gets
thickened and this part is known as primitive
knot.
• A depression appears in the center of primitive
knot called as blastopore. Cells in the primitive
knot multiply and pass cranially in between
ectoderm and endoderm and reaches the caudal
margin of prochordal plate resulting in formation
of a solid cord known as notochordal process.
• The cells of notochordal process undergoes
various degree of rearrangements and finally
forms a solid rod called notochord.
• Notochord mostly disappears after
development but small portion of it persist as
nucleus pulposes in intervertebral discs
 EMBRYONIC DISC AND GERM LAYERS
• Some cells of the inner cell mass differentiate into flat cells and come to lower end and form endoderm,
remaining cells become columnar and form ectoderm.
• A space arises between trophoblast and ectoderm called amniotic cavity.
• Some cells of trophoblast gets seperated and forms the roof of amniotic cavity. These cells are called
amniogenic cells.
• Flat cells from endoderm cover blastocystic cavity and the newly formed cavity is called primary yolk sac.
• The cells of trophoblast form a mass called extra embryonic mesoderm. Gradually small spaces form inside
these mass of cells and form a cavity called extraembryonic celom
• As a result extraembryonic mesoderm is split into 2 layers—the outermost part called somatopleuric or parietal
extraembryonic mesoderm and innermost, i.e. just outside the yolk sac called the splanchnopleuric or visceral
extraembryonic mesoderm.
• Butthe extraembryonic celomisnot continuouswhere extraembryonicmesodermattaches the amniotic cavity to
trophoblast. And this unsplit part of extraembryonic mesoderm forms the connecting stalk.
• Chorion is formed by parietal extraembryonic mesoderm and overlying trophoblast.
• Amnion is formed by amniogenic cells derived from trophoblast.
• The primary yolk sac undergoes reduction in size and cells become cubical forming secondary yolk sac.
• In the disc formed, in an area near the margin, the cubical cells of endoderm becomes columnar and this area is
called prochordal plate.
• Soon some of the cells lying along the central axis of prochordal plate proliferate and bulge and form elevation
called primitive streak.
 PLACENTA
• Formed from two sources:
1. Fetal source — chorion frondosum
• 2. Maternal source — decidua basalis
• The essential part of placenta is chorionic villi surrounded by maternal blood and fetal blood circulates
through capillaries in villi.
• Syncytiotrophoblast part of trophoblast proliferates and grow towards the decidua basalis and
capsularis.
• Trophoblast proper with primary mesoderm forms chorion.
• Lacunar spaces appear within the syncytiotrophoblast and decidua basalis.
• Trabeculae containing cords of syncytial cells are present between these lacunar spaces.
• Lacunae enlarge and contain uterine vessels.
• Then the cytotrophoblast extends in to the core of trabeculae, converts them in to primary chorionic
villi.
• Now lacunar spaces are called intervillous spaces.
• In the development of chorionic villi it undergoes 3 stages:
1. Primary villi consisting of a central core of cytotrophoblast covered by syncytiotrophoblast.
2. Secondary villi having layers extraembryonic mesoderm, cytotrophoblast and syncytiotrophoblast.
3. Tertiary villi having blood capillaries in extraembryonic mesoderm.
• Cytotrophoblast spreads outwards at tips of primary villi, resulting in outer cytotrophoblastic shell. •
Primary mesodermal cells invade central core of primary villi to form secondary villi.
• Fetal vessels derived from umbilical vessels appear within primary mesoderm, forming the tertiary villi.
• Tertiary chorionic villi attached to decidua basalis forms the chorion frondosum. Rest of the villi
attached to the embryonic pole degenerates. This results in the formation of placenta from chorion
frondosum and decidua basalis.
 MECKEL’S DIVERTICULUM
• Midgut communicate with yolk sac at
embryological stage through vitellointestinal
duct.
• Normally vitellointestinal duct involutes and
disappears, occasionally the duct closes at
umbilical end but remain patent at intestinal end.
• Patent vitellointestinal duct gives rise to
Meckel’s diverticulum.
• This patent part appears as out pocketing of
ileum.
• Occurs in 2% subjects, 2 inches long and
situated 2 ft proximal to ileocecal valve, occurs
most commonly in children under 2, and is
symptomatic in 2% of patients.