BIODIVERSITY AND HEALTH

SOCIETY
KITZ ADAM F. MALIGALIG
 WHAT IS BIODIVERSITY?
Biological diversity or biodiversity is the variety
of life, and refers collectively to variation at all
levels of biological organization. The term
biodiversity refers to the full abundance or
variety of life – plant, animal and microbial. This
variety of life occurs at all levels of ecological
organization, but biodiversity generally refers to
genetic, species and ecosystem diversity. This is
the diversity of life upon which the health of the
environment depends. Genetic, species and
ecosystem diversity are convenient terms but
because the universe is a continuum, some
practical difficulties exist in precisely defining
each of them.
 WHAT IS BIODIVERSITY?
Biological diversity or biodiversity is the variety
of life, and refers collectively to variation at all
levels of biological organization. The term
biodiversity refers to the full abundance or
variety of life – plant, animal and microbial. This
variety of life occurs at all levels of ecological
organization, but biodiversity generally refers to
genetic, species and ecosystem diversity. This is
the diversity of life upon which the health of the
environment depends. Genetic, species and
ecosystem diversity are convenient terms but
because the universe is a continuum, some
practical difficulties exist in precisely defining
each of them.
BIODIVERSITY SUPPORTS FOOD SECURITY, DIETARY HEALTH,
LIVELIHOOD SUSTAINABILITY

Genetic diversity in food systems provides

the foundation of crop development and
food security, and promotes resistance and
resilience to environmental stresses
including pests and diseases of crops and
livestock.
BIODIVERSITY PROVIDES IMPORTANT RESOURCES FOR MEDICAL
RESEARCH

Studies of wildlife anatomy, physiology and biochemistry

can lead to important developments in human medicine.
Examples of species of interest to medical science include
bears (for insights into osteoporosis, cardio-vascular
disorders, renal disease and diabetes), sharks
(osmoregulation and immunology), cetaceans (respiration
and treatments for divers suffering from decompression
sickness) and horse-shoe crabs
(optometry/ophthalmology and molecular biology).
BIODIVERSITY PROVIDES IMPORTANT RESOURCES FOR TRADITIONAL
AND MODERN MEDICINE

Biodiversity loss can impact on community traditions and

livelihoods centered on traditional medicinal practices
that utilize wild animals and plants, particularly for
indigenous and local communities. Millions of people
depend upon traditional medicines for their primary
health care.
BIODIVERSITY PLAYS A ROLE IN THE REGULATION AND CONTROL OF
INFECTIOUS DISEASES

Biodiversity loss and ecosystem change can increase the

risk of emergence or spread of infectious diseases in
animals, plants and humans, including economically
important livestock diseases, zoonotic outbreaks and
global pandemics.
BIODIVERSITY HAS SOCIAL, CULTURAL AND SPIRITUAL IMPORTANCE
WITHIN COMMUNITIES

Ecosystem change can result in disconnection of

populations from open spaces or the wider countryside,
with negative implications for physical and mental well-
being and loss of “sense of place”. This has been linked to
an increased prevalence of ‘disease of affluence’
(diabetes, obesity, cardio-pulmonary illness) and
psychological disorders in many communities.
THREATS TO DIODIVERSITY
The five main threats to biodiversity are habitat
loss, pollution, overexploitation, invasive
species, and climate change. Increased mobility
and trade has resulted in the introduction of
invasive species while the other threats are
direct results of human population growth and
resource use.
 HABITAT LOSS

Humans rely on technology to modify

their environment and make it habitable.
Other species cannot do this. Elimination
of their habitat—whether it is a forest,
coral reef, grassland, or flowing river—
will kill the individuals in the species.
Remove the entire habitat and the species
will become extinct, unless they are
among the few species that do well in
human-built environments.
 OVERHARVESTING

Humans rely on technology to modify

their environment and make it habitable.
Other species cannot do this. Elimination
of their habitat—whether it is a forest,
coral reef, grassland, or flowing river—
will kill the individuals in the species.
Remove the entire habitat and the species
will become extinct, unless they are
among the few species that do well in
human-built environments.
 INVASIVE SPECIES

Exotic species are species that have been

intentionally or unintentionally introduced
by humans into an ecosystem in which they
did not evolve. These exotic species often
undergo dramatic population increases in
their new habitat and reset the ecological
conditions in the new environment,
threatening the species that exist there.
 CLIMATE CHANGE

Climate change, and specifically the

anthropogenic warming trend presently
underway, is recognized as a major
extinction threat, particularly when
combined with other threats such as habitat
loss. Scientists overwhelmingly agree the
present warming trend is caused by humans
and some of the likely effects include
dramatic and dangerous climate changes in
the coming decades.
GENETICALLY MODIFIED ORGANISMS (GMOS)

Biotechnology is a set of techniques that involves the use

of biological processes and living organisms for industry,
agricultural or other activities. Its purpose is to modify
the natural and biological processes of living organisms
without necessarily altering the genes or genetic construct
of the living organisms.
FOUR MAJOR INDUSTRIAL PROCESSES BASED ON
BIOLOGICAL SYSTEMS

• CELL AND TISSUE CULTURE

• FERMENTATION
• ENZYME TECHNOLOGY, and
• GENETIC ENGINEERING
GENETICALLY MODIFIED ORGANISMS (GMOS)

Genetic engineering or recombinant DNA

(deoxyribonucleic acid) technology differs from other
forms of biotechnology as it allows the isolation and
transfer of genes coding specific characteristics between
living organisms to produce a new living organism that
expresses the desired characteristics of both organisms.
Genetically modified organisms or GMOs is the common
term used for genetically engineered organisms.
GENETICALLY MODIFIED ORGANISMS (GMOS)

Genetic engineering or recombinant DNA

(deoxyribonucleic acid) technology differs from other
forms of biotechnology as it allows the isolation and
transfer of genes coding specific characteristics between
living organisms to produce a new living organism that
expresses the desired characteristics of both organisms.
Genetically modified organisms or GMOs is the common
term used for genetically engineered organisms.
INTENDED USE OF GMO’S
 SOME GENETICALLY MODIFIED ORGANISMS DEVELOPED IN THE
PHILIPPINES

LONGER LASTING PAPAYAS - Institute of

Plant Breeding in UPLB developed delayed-
ripening papaya that is resistant to ring-spot virus
(PRSV). The initial project assisted by the
Australian government developed a papaya
variety with a 14-day shelf life, or double the
usual 6 days. The scientists achieved this by
suppressing the generation of key enzyme in the
ethylene biosynthesis pathway –ACC synthase –
through genetic manipulation. ACC synthase
triggers ethylene production, which causes
ripening of fruits.
 SOME GENETICALLY MODIFIED ORGANISMS DEVELOPED IN THE
PHILIPPINES

PROTEIN ENRICHED COPRA MEAL (PECM) as

feed protein for tilapia, milkfish and shrimp aquaculture
- Primarily used as animal feed, copra meal is an
important feed resource in the Philippines. In 2014, the
Philippines produced about 750,000 metric tons of
copra meal as coconut by-product. About 60% of this
was locally utilized mainly as animal feed. There are,
however, several concerns on the use of soybean meals
as feeding ingredient. This 101 includes its fluctuating
market price, its being expensive import commodity, its
erratic supply, and the fact that it even competes for
human food.
 SOME GENETICALLY MODIFIED ORGANISMS DEVELOPED IN THE
PHILIPPINES

TOMATO LEAF CURVE VIRUS (ToLCV)- resistant

Variety - The Institute of Plant Breeding (IPB) of
the University of the Philippines Los Banos
(UPLB) has developed tomato breeding line
resistant to tomato leaf curl virus (ToLCV) in the
hope of reviving tomato’s robust production in the
country.
 SOME GENETICALLY MODIFIED ORGANISMS DEVELOPED IN THE
PHILIPPINES

BT CORN - Bt corn in the Philippines was

engineered to be specifically resistant to the Asian
corn borer (ACB), Ostrinia furnacalis (Guenee),
the most devastating corn pests in the industry. It
was introduced as a “practical and ecologically
sustainable solution” for poor corn farmers, a
major bullet to combat poverty and improve
livelihood.
 POTENTIAL BENEFITS OF GM CROPS

1. Better nutritional qualities---rice with provitamin A and iron; corn with high lysine and tryptophan;
vegetables with higher ~-carotene and lycopene; legumes with higher sulfur containing amino
acids: sweet potato with higher protein content.
2. 2. Engineering pest or disease resistance in important crops such as rice and corn, various
vegetables. sweet potato and others especially those important for developing countries.
3. 3. Edible vaccines ---aimed at providing low cost immunization strategy for developing countries;
banana with antigen of causal organism of diarrhea is now at clinical trial stage. Vaccine corn for
gastroenteritis in hogs, hepatitis B in humans, etc.
 POTENTIAL BENEFITS OF GM CROPS

4. Antibodies engineered and produced in plants---expressed antibodies in potato, tobacco and rapeseed
were stable and active; need to increase expression level.
5. Crops which can extract and detoxify pollutants from the environment such as heavy metals---this
research is hampered by the lack of basic knowledge on the molecular mechanism involved in the
uptake and storage of inorganics in plants.
6. Crops which produce less toxic residues such as corn with low phytate, 15 Phytate 104 complexes
phosphorus and thus the latter becomes unavailable and cannot released by nonruminants. A large
amount of phosphate is excreted and contributes to water pollution.
7. Production of alternative polymers which can replace o substitute plastics and other petrochemical
products in plants and thus are renewable and biodegradable.
 RISK RELATED TO THE USE OF GENETICALLY MODIFIED ORGANISMS (GMOS)

Genetic Contamination/Interbreeding. Introduced GMOs may interbreed with the wildtype or

sexually compatible relatives. The novel trait may disappear in wild types unless it confers a selective
advantage to the recipient. However, tolerance abilities of wild types may also develop, thus altering the
native species’ ecological relationship and behavior.
Competition with Natural Species. Faster growth of GMOs can enable them to have a competitive
advantage over the native organisms. This may allow them become invasive, to spread into new
habitats, and cause ecological and economic damage.
Increased Selection Pressure on Target and Non-target Organisms. Pressure may increase on target
and non-target species to adapt to the introduced changes as if to a geological change or a natural
selection pressure causing them to evolve distinct resistant populations.
RISK RELATED TO THE USE OF GENETICALLY MODIFIED ORGANISMS (GMOS)

Ecosystem Impacts. The effects of changes in a single species may extend well beyond to the
ecosystem. Single impacts are always joined by the risk of ecosystem damage and destruction.
Impossibility of Follow-up. Once the GMOs have been introduced into the environment and some
problems arise, it is impossible to eliminate them. Many of these risks are identical to those incurred
with regards to the introduction of naturally or conventionally bred species. But still this does not
suggest that GMOs are safe or beneficial, nor that they should be less scrutinized.
Horizontal Transfer of Recombinant Genes to other Microorganisms. One risk of particular concern
relating to GMOs is the risk of horizontal gene transfer (HGT). HGT is the acquisition of foreign genes
(via transformation, transduction, and conjugation) by organisms in a variety of environmental
situations. It occurs especially in response to changing environments and provides organisms, especially
prokaryotes, with access to genes other than those that can be inherited. HGT of an introduced gene
from a GMO may confer a novel trait in another organism, which could be a source of potential harm to
the health of people or the environment.
RISK RELATED TO THE USE OF GENETICALLY MODIFIED ORGANISMS (GMOS)

Loss of Management Control Measures. Regulatory approvals for field trials of GMOs often require
measures to limit and control the release in space and time. With the spread of the introduced gene(s) to
another species by HGT, a new GMO is created. This new GMO may give rise to adverse effects which
are not controlled by management measures imposed by the original license or permit.
Long-term Effects. Sometimes the impact of HGT may be more severe in the long term. Even under
relatively strong selection pressure, it may take thousands of generations for a recipient organism to
become the dominant form in the population. In addition, other factors such as timing of appropriate
biotic or abiotic environmental conditions and additional changes in the recipient organism could delay
adverse effects.
Antibiotic Resistance and Horizontal Gene Transfer. Most of the first generation of GM crops have
antibiotic resistance gene as selectable marker. It has been hypothesized that such antibiotic resistance
genes could lead to the innovation of oral doses of the antibiotic, or that these genes could be
transferred to pathogenic microorganism in the gut or the soil which will render them resistant to such
antibiotics.
RISK RELATED TO THE USE OF GENETICALLY MODIFIED ORGANISMS (GMOS)

Loss of Management Control Measures. Regulatory approvals for field trials of GMOs often require
measures to limit and control the release in space and time. With the spread of the introduced gene(s) to
another species by HGT, a new GMO is created. This new GMO may give rise to adverse effects which
are not controlled by management measures imposed by the original license or permit.
Long-term Effects. Sometimes the impact of HGT may be more severe in the long term. Even under
relatively strong selection pressure, it may take thousands of generations for a recipient organism to
become the dominant form in the population. In addition, other factors such as timing of appropriate
biotic or abiotic environmental conditions and additional changes in the recipient organism could delay
adverse effects.
Antibiotic Resistance and Horizontal Gene Transfer. Most of the first generation of GM crops have
antibiotic resistance gene as selectable marker. It has been hypothesized that such antibiotic resistance
genes could lead to the innovation of oral doses of the antibiotic, or that these genes could be
transferred to pathogenic microorganism in the gut or the soil which will render them resistant to such
antibiotics.
 GMOS AND BIODIVERSITY

The impact of GMOs on biodiversity is widely debated. Pro-GMO researchers maintain that if crops are
genetically modified for pest resistance, farmers can reduce their reliance on insecticides, so that local
fauna, such as birds, rodents, and insects, can flourish in the area. Secondary pests that would have been
eliminated through widespread insecticide application are not suppressed by the scaled-back insecticide
use permitted GMOs.It has been hypothesized that GM crops can harm insect species that are not pests.
Insects that feed on GM crops will carry GM pollen, which may prove toxic in the long term and result
in depletion or even extinction of insect populations. The genetic integrity of any plant or insect that
lives in close proximity to GM crops can be compromised because gene transfer from one organism to
another can occur, and such genes may pose unanticipated risks. GM traits have been found transferred
to insects, water life and soil.