SEMICONDUCTORS

Each orbit of an atom has a fixed energy associated with it called energy level. Larger the radius of orbit, larger is
its energy.
When energy is supplied electrons are lifted from lower orbit to higher orbit. When cooled they jump from high to
low orbit and heat is given out in the form of electromagnetic wave.
Energy band: isolated single atom has orbits with fixed energies. When the atom is in solid state it is influenced by
closely packed atoms, as a result electron in a particular orbit has a range of energy.
The range of energy possessed by an electron is called energy band.
Energy bands:
1) Valence band: the range of energies possessed by valence electrons is called valence band. Valence band can
be completely filled (inert substances) or can be partially filled.
2) Conduction band: In case of metals electrons are loosely bound. Even at room temperature they can become
completely free for conduction. The range of energies possessed by this loosely bound electrons is called
conduction band.

Orbital energy gap: the separation between the conduction band and the valence band is called energy gap. There
are no electrons possessing this energy.
Insulators: are substances which do not allow passage of electric current through them.
(i) In insulators valence band is completely filled or partially filled.
(ii) Conduction band is completely empty.
(iii) Energy gap is very big of about 8 electron volts.
With increase in temperature, valence electrons can be taken into conduction band. Hence resistance decreases
and they are said to have –ve temperature coefficient of resistance.
Diamond is the best insulator with gap of 8 eV

Conductors: conductors are the substances which have free electrons which can carry current through them.
In conductors, the conduction band and valence band overlap each other.
The electrons in the valence band are loosely bound and even at room temperature they gain the energy and go to
the conduction band.

Semi conductors are the substances whose resistivity lies between the resistivity of conductors and insulators.
Energy gap between conduction band and valence band is very small of order of about 1eV
With increase in temperature conductivity increases. Hence it is said to have –ve temperature coefficient of
resistance. Valence band is almost filled and conduction band is almost empty.
Semi conductors: Germanium and Silicon are 2 prominent examples of semiconductors.
Structure: atomic number of Germanium is 32 hence it has 4 electrons in the outermost orbit. Hence to complete
octet it is in need of 4 more electrons. The germanium atom borrows this 4 electrons from the neighbouring atom
forming covalent bonds. This 4 electrons are shared by the neighbouring atoms also. At absolute 0K the
conduction band is completely empty and valence band is completely filled.
Intrinsic semiconductor: a semiconductor in an extremely pure form is known as an intrinsic semiconductor. In an intrinsic
semiconductor, even at room temperature, hole electron pairs are created. When electric field is applied across an intrinsic
semiconductor, the current conduction takes place by two processes namely by free electrons and holes.
Extrinsic semiconductor: when external impurity is added to semiconductors it is called as extrinsic semiconductor or doped
semiconductor.
The process of adding impurity to a semiconductor is called doping and the added impurity is called dopent.
Extrinsic semiconductor is divided into 2 types: N type semiconductor
P type semiconductor

N type semiconductor
When the semiconductor is doped with pentavalent impurity atoms (having 5
valence electrons) free electrons are majority charge carriers and semiconductor is
called n type semiconductor. When pentavalent impurity is added to Ge or Si
crystal its 4 electrons form the bond with the neighbouring atom leaving the 5 th
electron free. This electron is available for the conduction. Since the electrons are
majority charge carriers which are –ve, it is called n type semi conductor.
Pentavalent atoms are called as donors.
In n type semiconductor energy level is reduced to little below the conduction band. Even at room temperature
electrons go from donor level to lower level and conduction is possible.

P type semiconductor
When trivalent impurity(having three valence electrons) like Al, In, Ga is added
to Ge or Si crystal the 3 valence electrons of impurity atom forms covalent
bonds with neighbouring free Ge atoms, leaving the 4 th place vacant (hole) Since
the holes are charged carriers which are in majority and which are +ve, it is
called as P type semi conductors. Trivalent impurity atom is called acceptor
atom.
PN Junction diode
A p type and n type crystal, when joined or fused, the junction is called PN junction or PN junction diode. At the
junction, holes from p side and electrons from n side diffuse.

The electrons and holes combine and neutralise. This layer is formed at the junction
which does not has any charge carriers and is called as depletion region.
The ions in this region becomes uncovered and slight negative charge is formed in
the p region and +ve charge at the n region at junction. A stage is reached at which
no electrons and holes can diffuse any more. A barrier is formed at the junction
which is called as potential barrier.

Potential barrier: it is the potential difference developed across the PN junction due to the migration of majority charge
carriers. It opposes the further diffusion of majority charge carriers.

Forward biasing: when p side of diode is connected to +ve terminal of battery

and n side is connected to the –ve, the electrons from n side move towards
the +ve terminal and holes move towards –ve terminal potential barrier
breaks up and current flows through the junction. Thus during forward bias
resistance is reduced.
Reverse biasing: When P is connected to –ve terminal and n to +ve terminal the diode
is said to be reverse bias. The hole moves towards +ve terminal of the battery and
electrons from n side move from –ve side of battery. As a result potential barrier
increases. Practically no current flows through the circuit. However some reverse
current flows through the junction due to minority carriers formed in intrinsic
conductivity. The resistance at the junction is very high in reversed bias.

Volt-ampere (V-I) characteristics of PN junction

During forward bias condition, initially, the current increases very slowly almost
negligibly, till the voltage across the diode crosses a certain value, called the threshold-
voltage or cut-in voltage.
After the cut in voltage, the diode current increases rapidly,
even for a very small increase in the voltage. The resistance
across the junction is very low.
When the diode is reverse biased, the reverse bias voltage
produces a very small current which remains constant. This
small current is called reverse saturation current.
When the reverse voltage across the the p-n junction
reaches a sufficiently high value, the reverse current
suddenly increases to a large value. This voltage at which
breakdown of the junction diode occurs is called Zener
breakdown or avalanche breakdown.
Rectification: It is a process of converting A.C. into direct current. The device which converts A.C. into D.C. is called a
rectifier.
Principle: PN junction conducts only when it is forward biased and does not conduct when it is reverse biased.

Half wave rectifier

P1 D
S1

P2 S2

It consists of a transformer. The ends of the primary coil are connected to the alternating source. Diode D is connected
to the 2 ends of the secondary coil.
Working: due to A.C. source, P1 and P2 become alternately +ve and –ve. So also S1 and S2 become +ve and –ve
simultaneously. At the instant when P1 is +ve, P2 is –ve and hence S1 is +ve and S2 is –ve. Diode D is in forward
biased condition. Current flows through it. Hence current also flows through RL and output is obtained during this half
cycle.
When –ve half cycle appears, P1 becomes –ve, P2 becomes +ve. Hence S1 is -ve and S2 is +ve. Diode is reversed
biased.
No current flows through RL. Hence no output. Thus only during the +ve half cycle of the input output is obtained.
Full wave rectifier
Since both half of input are rectified it is called full wave rectifier. It consists of a transformer. The ends of primary coil are
connected to A.C. source. Two diodes D1 and D2 are connected to ends of secondary coil. The load resistance RL is connected
to centre tap T and the junction of –ve terminals of the 2 diodes. The ends of primary P1 and P2 becomes alternately +ve and –
ve and simultaneously ends S1 and S2 becomes +ve and –ve .
When +ve half cycle of input appears P1 becomes +ve and P2 –ve. Also S1 is +ve and S2 is –ve. Diode D1 is forward biased
and D2 is reverse biased. Current flows through D1 and hence to RL and output is obtained. When P1 is –ve, P2 is +ve and also
S1 is –ve and S2 is +ve. D2 is forward biased and D1 is reverse biased. Again the current flows through RL in the same
direction and output is obtained.

P1
S1

S2
P2
Special purpose p-n junction diodes

1) Zener diode: it is a special purpose semiconductor diode designed to operate under reverse bias in the breakdown
region and used as a voltage regulator. It is fabricated by heavily doping both the p and n sides of the junction. Due
to this depletion region is very thin and the electric field of the junction is extremely high even for a small reverse
bias voltage of about 5V

2) Photodiode: it is a special purpose p-n junction diode fabricated with a transparent window to allow light to fall on
the diode. It is operated under reverse bias. When the photodiode is illuminated with light with energy greater than
the energy gap of the semiconductor, then electron hole pairs are generated due to the absorption of photons. The
diode is fabricated such that the generation of e-h pairs takes place in or near the depletion region of the diode.

3) Light emitting diode: it is a heavily doped p-n junction which under forward bias emits spontaneous radiation. The
diode is covered with a transparent cover so that light emitted can come out. When the diode is forward biased,
electrons are sent from n to p and holes are sent from p to n. the semi conductor used for fabrication must at least
have a band gap of 1.8eV

4) Solar cell: a solar cell is basically a p-n junction which generates emf when solar radiation falls on the p-n junction.
It works on the same principle as the photodiode, except that no external bias is applied and the junction area is
kept much larger for solar radiation to be incident
Logic Gates
A gate is a digital circuit that follows certain logical relationship between the input and output voltages.
The 5 common logic gates used are NOT, AND, OR, NAND, NOR. Each logic gate is indicated by a symbol and its
function is defined by a truth table

NOT OR AND NAND (AND+NOT) NOR (OR+NOT)

*NAND gate is an AND gate followed by a NOT gate.

*NOR gate is an OR gate followed by a NOT gate