VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS

AND GRADATIONS
 OBJECTIVES:
• Introductory to the concept of volcanic eruptions
and gradation.
• Develop an understanding of the different parts of
volcano and types of volcanic eruptions.
• Explore precautionary measures before, during,
and after a volcanic eruption.
• Learn about various types of weathering, erosion,
and deposition processes.
• Understand the types of soil and different soil
horizons.
 INTRODUCTION:
• The earth is a dynamic and ever-
changing planet. Agents like wind,
water, and ice erode and change
the land. Volcanic activities and
earthquakes modify the landscape
in a random and remarkable way.
 VOLCANO
- is a vent or fissure in the planet's crust
through which lava, ash, rock and gases
erupt.
- It is also a mountain formed by the
accumulation of these eruptive products.
 Parts of a Volcano
 MAGMA CHAMBER
- is a hollow within the volcano where
magma and gases accumulate. During
an eruption, these volcanic materials
move from the magma chamber toward
the surface via a pipe-like passageway
called a conduit.
 VENT
- is an opening on the surface of a
volcano that emits lava, gases, ash or
other volcanic materials. Some
volcanoes have multiple vents, but
there is only one main vent, or central
vent.
 CRATER
- It is the top of the volcano, the central
vent surrounded by a bowl-shaped
depression.
 PRINCIPAL TYPES OF VOLCANOES
1.CINDER CONES
- Is the simplest type of volcano. They are
built from particles and blobs of congealed
lava ejected from a single vent. As the gas-
charged lava is blown violently into the air,
it breaks into small fragments that solidify
and fall as cinders around the vent to form
a circular or oval cone.
EXAMPLES:
 2. COMPOSITE VOLCANOES
- Some of the Earth's grandest mountains
are composite volcanoes--sometimes
called STRATOVOLCANOES. They are
typically steep-sided, symmetrical cones of
large dimension built of alternating layers
of lava flows, volcanic ash, cinders, blocks,
and bombs and may rise as much as 8,000
feet above their bases.
EXAMPLES:
 3. SHIELD VOLCANOES
- They are built almost entirely of fluid
lava flows. Flow after flow pours out in
all directions from a central summit
vent, or group of vents, building a
broad, gently sloping cone of flat,
domical shape, with a profile much like
that of a warrior's shield.
EXAMPLES:
 4. VOLCANIC or LAVA DOMES
- are formed by relatively small, bulbous masses of
lava too viscous to flow any great distance;
consequently, on extrusion, the lava piles over and
around its vent. A dome grows largely by expansion
from within. As it grows its outer surface cools and
hardens, then shatters, spilling loose fragments
down its sides. Some domes form craggy knobs or
spines over the volcanic vent, whereas others form
short, steep-sided lava flows known as "coulees."
Volcanic domes commonly occur within the craters
 EXAMPLES:

MOUNT ST. HELENS

TYPES OF VOLCANOES
 TYPES OF VOLCANIC ERUPTION
a. Hydrothermal eruption
- An eruption driven by the heat.
b. Phreatic eruption
- An eruption driven by the heat from magma
interacting with water.
c. Phreatomagmatic eruption
- An eruption resulting from the interaction of new
magma or lava with water and can be very explosive.
• Lava
- is molten rock erupted at the ground surface.
• Lava flows
- are the effusive (non-explosive) outpourings of lava, and usually
flow slower than walking pace. Lava flow types include a’a, blocky
and pahoehoe.
• Lava fountains
- are a fountain of runny lava fragments from a vent or line of vents
(a fissure).
• Lava domes
- are mounds that form when viscous lava is erupted slowly and
piles up over the vent, rather than moving away as a lava flow.
d. Strombolian and Hawaiian eruptions
- are the least violent types of explosive eruptions.
e. Vulcanian eruptions
- are small to moderate explosive eruptions,
lasting seconds to minutes.
f. Subplinian and Plinian eruptions
- Eruptions with a high rate of magma discharge,
sustained for minutes to hours.
 GRADATION
– constructive
processes, like
diastrophism and
volcanism tend to raise
the surface of the land
while destructive or
leveling processes tend
to break down the
crust.
 1. WEATHERING
- the breaking down of rocks by physical or chemical
means into small pieces called sediments. Although
rocks may appear to be solid and strong, but in time,
they undergo decay, disintegration and removal.
TYPES OF WEATHERING
1. MECHANICAL WEATHERING
- when rocks crack, split and break apart into small
pieces and their overall chemical composition does
not change, this type of weathering is called
mechanical or physical weathering.
 TYPES OF PHYSICAL WEATHERING
• Wedging is caused by substances that get into
holes and cracks in rock and expand outwards.
• Exfoliation occurs when rocks that formed in high
pressure environments are brought to the Earth's
surface.
• Abrasion is caused when rocks rub together. For
example, the rocks on a riverbed smooth each
other because they collide in the current.
• Thermal expansion is caused by heating. When
rocks are heated -- as by the sun -- they expand.
Growing plants, burrowing animals, wind, temperature,
water and expanding ice are agents that can mechanically
break rocks apart. These natural processes produce
enough force to break rocks into smaller pieces.
• The action of freezing in rocks change the rock surface.
Freezing expands rocks causing the crumbling of the
outer layer.
• Plants and Animals can break rocks apart. As the roots
of the plants grow, cracks occur and the existing cracks
enlarge. Burrowing animals loosen rocks.
• Water constantly at work continues to reshape the surface of the
earth. The action of water breaks the outer layer of rocks.
• The action of wind reshapes the land. As the wind blows, the
outer layers of the rocks are gradually abraded. The softer parts
are removed and blown away, clarify the appearance of the rock.
• Changes in temperature cause rock masses to alternately
contract and expand. This alternate contraction and expansion
causes the outer layers of rocks to peel off or exfoliate.
• Human activities also break rocks apart. Cultivation, mining,
road construction and quarrying are examples of these human
activities.
 2. CHEMICAL WEATHERING
- slowly decomposes rocks by altering their mineral
composition. The minerals composing rocks react with
water, gases and in solutions where the ph varies.
TYPES OF CHEMICAL WEATHERING
• Oxidation is the reaction of oxygen with chemicals in a
rock.
• Hydrolysis is a process in which a rock absorbs water
into its chemical structure. A rock with a higher water
content is softer, and thus easier for physical weathering,
or even just gravity, to decay.
• Carbonation is caused by carbonic acid in water
reacting with and degrading rock. This acid is
especially effective at degrading limestone.
Underground carbonation may form limestone
caverns.
• Acid rain is caused by sulfur and nitrogen
compounds in the air reacting with water to form
acids that then fall to the ground.
 EROSION AND DEPOSITION
• is defined as the removal
of soil, sediment, regolith, and rock fragments
from the landscape. Most landscapes show
obvious evidence of erosion.
• is responsible for the creation of hills and
valleys. It removes sediments from areas that
were once glaciated, shapes the shorelines of
lakes and coastlines, and transports material
downslope from elevated sites.
 THREE(3) PROCESSES OF EROSION
• DETACHMENT
- a particle from surrounding material.
FORCES OF DETACHMENT
Plucking: ice freezes onto the surface, particularly
in cracks and crevices, and pulls fragments out from
the surface of the rock.
Cavitation: intense erosion due to the surface
collapse of air bubbles found in rapid flows of water.
Raindrop impact: the force of a raindrop
falling onto a soil or weathered rock surface is
often sufficient to break weaker particle
bonds.
Abrasion: the excavation of surface particles
by material carried by the erosion agent.
• TRANSPORT
-Once a particle is entrained, it tends to move
as long as the velocity of the medium is high
enough to transport the particle horizontally.
Within the medium, transport can occur in
four different ways:
Suspension is where the particles are carried
by the medium without touching the surface of
their origin.
Saltation is where the particle moves from the
surface to the medium in quick continuous
repeated cycles.
Traction is the movement of particles by rolling,
sliding, and shuffling along the eroded surface. This
occurs in all erosional mediums.
Solution is a transport mechanism that occurs
only in aqueous environments. Solution involves
the eroded material being dissolve and carried along
in water as individual ions.
• DEPOSITION
- The erosional transport of material
through the landscape is rarely
continuous. Instead, we find that particles
may undergo repeated cycles
of entrainment, transport,
and deposition.
CAUSE OF DEPOSITION
Precipitation is a process where dissolved
ions become solid because of changes in
the temperature or chemistry of the water.
Flocculation is a chemical process where
salt causes the aggregation of minute clay
particles into larger masses that are too
heavy to remain suspended.
 The effects of these processes are as
follows:
• Changes in shape, size, and texture of
land-forms (i.e. mountains, riverbeds, and
beaches)
• Landslides
• Buildings, statues, and roads wearing
away
• Soil formation
• Washes soil, pollutants, harmful sediments
into waterways
• Causes metals to rust
• Reduces beaches, shorelines
• Delta formation
• Formation of various new landforms
• SOIL
- is capable of supporting plant life and is vital to life
on earth. Soil formation rates vary across the planet:
the slowest rates occur in cold, dry regions (1000+
years), and the fastest rates are in hot, wet regions
(several hundred years).
From a soil scientist’s perspective,
soil is: The surface mineral and/or organic layer
of the earth that has experienced some degree of
physical, biological and chemical weathering.
 MAJOR SOIL COMPONENTS:
• Inorganic component
- is the major component of most soils. It consists
largely of mineral particles with specific physical
and chemical properties which vary depending on
the parent material and conditions under which the
soil was formed.
• Soil texture
The texture of soil is a property which is determined
largely by the relative proportions of inorganic
particles of different sizes.
• Sand
- Quartz is the predominant mineral in the sand fraction of
most soils. Sand particles have a relatively small surface
area per unit weight, low water retention and little
chemical activity compared with silt and clay.
• Silt
- Silt has a relatively limited surface area and little
chemical activity. Soils high in silt may compact under
heavy traffic and this affects the movement of air and
water in the soil.
• Clay
Clays have very large surface areas compared
with the other inorganic fractions.
• Soil textural class
The relative proportion of sand, silt and clay
particles determines the physical properties of
soil including the texture.
Textural Class Description
Sand - A sand has a loose gritty feel and does not stick
together. Individual sand grains can be seen or felt.
Loamy Sand - In a loamy sand particles barely stick
together and a moulded piece of soil just holds its shape.
Sandy Loam - A sandy loam sticks together more than a
loamy sand but can be easily broken.
Silty Loam - A silty loam is like a loam but has a smooth
silky feel when a moist sample is pushed between the
index finger and thumb.
Loam - A loam breaks into crumbs but will tend to stick
together.
Sandy Clay Loam - A sandy clay loam is like a clay loam
but sand grains can be felt Silty Clay Loam - A silty clay
loam is like a clay loam but silty as well and smooth to the
touch.
Clay Loam - More easily moulded into a shape than a
loam, a clay loam rolls out to a thin ribbon between the
palms while a loam will break-up.Sandy Clay - A sandy
clay is like a clay but sand grains can be felt (and heard -
see Sandy Loam).
Silty Clay - A silty clay is like a clay but
smoother.
Clay - Clays are tough and can be moulded
into shapes when moist. Clays form a long
flexible ribbon when rubbed between the palms
and the ribbon can often be bent into a "U"
shape without breaking. Clays dry into very
hard clods.
• Structure
- is the arrangement of soil particles and the
pore spaces between them.
• Chemical properties
The inorganic minerals of soils consist
primarily of silicon, iron and aluminium which
do not contribute greatly to the nutritional
needs of plants.
• Organic component
- The organic matter of soil usually makes up less
than 10% by weight of soil. It can be subdivided into
the living and the non-living fractions.
• Organic matter
- The organic matter fraction of soils comes from the
decomposition of animal or plant products such as
faeces and leaves. Soil organic matter contributes to
stable soil aggregates by binding soil particles
together.
 DIFFERENT TYPES OF SOIL
1. SANDY SOIL
- is light, warm,
dry and tend to be
acidic and low in
nutrients.
2. CLAY SOIL
- is a heavy soil
type that benefits
from high
nutrients.
3. SILT SOIL
- is a light and
moisture retentive
soil type with a
high fertility
rating.
4. PEAT SOIL
- is high in organic
matter and retains
a large amount of
moisture.
5. CHALK SOIL
- can be either
light or heavy but
always highly
alkaline due to the
calcium carbonate
or lime within its
structure.
6. LOAMY SOIL
- It is a
combination of
sand, silt, and clay
such that the
beneficial
properties from
each is included.
Soil Horizons
Soil consists of different
layers that are often called
horizons.

There are three main soil

horizons called A, B and C
as well as an organic layer
(O) on top of the soil (O) and
bedrock (R) below:
O: This is a layer of organic matter that is about 2 inches thick
and is made up of dead plant material such as leaves and
twigs.
A: This upper soil horizon is also called Topsoil. It is only
between 5 to 10 inches thick and consists of organic matter
and minerals. This is the soil layer where plants and organisms
primarily live.
B: This layer is also called Subsoil. It is mostly made of clay,
iron minerals as well as organic matter, which has been
washed down to this horizon by rainwater.
C: The C horizon is the parent material from which the upper
soil layers developed. It consists primarily of large rocks.