6.

Cell biology and Biomolecules

Standard 11
Department of Botany
Christ The King Matric. Hr. Sec. Sch.
Kumbakonam
Unit III: Cell biology and Biomolecules
 Aristotle (384-322BC), -first recognised that animals and
plants consists of organised structural units but unable to
explain what it was.
 Robert Hooke 1660 -observed something which looks like
‘honeycomb with a great numbers of little boxes’ which was
later called as ‘cell’ from the cork tissue. In 1665, He
compiled his work as Micrographia.
 Anton Van Leeuwenhoek - observed unicellular particles
which he named as ‘animalcules’.
 Robert Brown (1831-39) - described the spherical body in
plant cell as nucleus.
 H. J. Dutrochet (1824), a French scientist, -first to give an
idea on cell theory.
 Matthias Schleiden (German Botanist) and Theodor
Schwann (German Zoologist) (1833) - outlined the basic
features of the cell theory.
 Rudolf Virchow (1858) - explained the cell theory by adding
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a feature stating that all living cells arise from pre-existing
living cells by ‘cell division’
6.2. Microscopy
Microscope is an inevitable instrument in studying the
cell and subcellular structures.
It offers scope in studying microscopic organisms
therefore it is named as microscope in Greek
terminology. (mikros – small; skipein – to see)
Compound microscope was invented by Z. Jansen.
Microscope basically works on the lens system and its
properties of light and lens such as reflection,
magnification and numerical aperture.
The common light microscope which has many lenses
are called as compound microscope.
C T K M H S S Km
The microscope transmits visible light from sources to eye
or camera through sample.
C T K M H S S Km
6.2.1 Bright field Microscope
 Bright field microscope is the routinely used
microscope in studying various aspects of cells.
 It allows light to pass directly through specimen and
shows a well distinguished image from different
portions of the specimen.
 The contrast can be increased by staining the specimen
with reagent that reacts with cells and tissue
components of the object.
 The light rays are focused by condenser on to the
specimen on a microslide placed upon the adjustable
platform called stage.
C T K M H S S Km
 Light comes from the Compact Flourescent Lamp
(CFL) or Light Emitting Diode (LED).
Bright field Microscope continue….
 Then it passes through two lens systems namely
objective lens (closer to the object) and the
eye piece (closer to eye).
 There are four objective lenses (5X, 10X, 45X and 100X)
which can be rotated and fixed at certain point to get
required magnification.
 It works on the principle of numerical aperture value and its
own resolving power.
 The first magnification of the microscope is done by the
objective lens which is called primary magnification and it
is real, inverted image.
 The second magnification of the microscope is obtained
C T K M H S S Km
through eye piece lens called as secondary magnification
and it is virtual and inverted image (Figure 6.2 a, b and c).
6.2.2 Electron Microscope
Electron Microscope was first
introduced by Ernest Ruska (1931) and
developed by G Binning and H Roher (1981).
It is used to analyse the fine details of cell and organelles called
ultrastructure.
It uses beam of accelerated electrons as source of illumination and
therefore the resolving power is 1,00,000 times greater than that of
light microscope.
The specimen to be viewed under electron microscope is dehydrated
and impregnated with electron opaque chemicals like gold or
palladium.
This is essential for withstanding electrons and also for contrast of the
image.
There are two kinds of electron microscopesC Tnamely:
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1. Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM)
2. Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)
1. Transmission electron microscope:
This is the most commonly used electron microscope
which provides two dimensional image. [2d]
The components of the microscope are as follows:
a. Electron generating system
b. Electron condensor
c. Specimen objective
d. Tube lens
e. Projector
A beam of electron passes through the specimen to form
an image on fluorescent screen.
The magnification is 1–3 lakhs times and
resolving power is 2–10 Å.
It is used for studying detailed structrue of viruses,
C T K M H S S Km
mycoplasma, cellular organelles, etc
(Figure 6.3 a and b).
2. Scanning Electron Microscope:
This is used to obtain three dimensional [3d]
image and has a lower resolving power than
TEM.
In this, electrons are focused by means of lenses
into a very fine point.
The interaction of electrons with the specimen
results in the release of different forms of
radiation from the surface of the specimen.
(such as auger electrons, secondary electrons,
back scattered electrons)
These radiations are then captured by an
appropriate detector, amplified and then
imaged on fluorescent screen.
C T K M H S S Km
The magnification is 2,00,000 times and
resolution is 5–20 nm
6.3. Cell Theory
In 1833, German botanist Matthias Schleiden and
German zoologist Theodor Schwann proposed that all
plants and animals are composed of cells and that cells
were the basic building blocks of life.
These observations led to the formulation of
modern cell theory.
i. All organisms are made up of cells.
ii. New cells are formed by the division of pre-
existing cells.
iii.Cells contains genetic material, which is passed
on from parents to daughter cells.
iv. All metabolic reactions takeC Tplace inside the cells.
K M H S S Km
6.3.1 Exception to Cell Theory
1. Viruses are puzzle in biology.
2. Viruses, viroids and prions are the exception to
cell theory.
3. They lack protoplasm, the essential part of the
cell and exists as obligate parasites which are
sub-cellular in nature.

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6.3.2 Protoplasm Theory
 Corti first observed protoplasm.
 Felix Dujardin (1835) observed a living juice in
animal cell and called it “Sarcode”.
 Purkinje (1839) coined the term protoplasm for sap
inside a plant cell.
 Hugo Van Mohl (1846) indicated importance of
protoplasm.
 Max Schultze (1861) established similarity between
Protoplasm and Sarcode
 O. Hertwig (1892) “Protoplasm Theory”
 Huxley (1868) proposed Protoplasm as a “physical
C T K M H S S Km

basis of life”.
Protoplasm as a Colloidal System
Protoplasm is a complex colloidal system which
was suggested by Fisher in 1894 and Hardy in
1899.
It is primarily made of water and various other
solutes of biological importance such as glucose,
fatty acids, amino acids, minerals, vitamins,
hormones and enzymes.
These solutes may be homogeneous (soluble in
water) or
heterogeneous mass (insolubleC in water)
T K M H S S Km
which
forms the basis for its colloidal nature.
Physical Properties of Protoplasm
1. The protoplasm exists either in semisolid (jelly-like) state
called ‘gel᾿ due to suspended particles and various
chemical bonds or may be liquid state called ‘sol᾿.
2. The colloidal protoplasm which is in
gel form can change into sol form by solation and
the sol can change into gel by gelation.
These gel-sol conditions of colloidal system are
prime basis for mechanical behaviour of cytoplasm.
3. Protoplasm is translucent, odourless and polyphasic fluid.
4. It is a crystal colloid solution which is a mixture of
chemical substances forming crystalloid i.e. true solution
(sugars, salts, acids, bases) and others
C T K Mforming
H S S Km colloidal
solution (Proteins and lipids)
Physical Properties of Protoplasm continue….
5. It is the most important property of the protoplasm by which it
exhibits three main phenomena namely
i.Brownian movement,
ii.Amoeboid movement and
iii.Cytoplasmic streaming or cyclosis.
Viscosity of protoplasm is 2–20 centipoises.
The Refractive index of the protoplasm is 1.4.
6. The pH of the protoplasm is around 6.8, contain 90% water (10% in
dormant seeds)
7. Approximately 34 elements are present in protoplasm but only 13
elements are main or universal elements
i.e. C, H, O, N, Cl, Ca, P, Na, K, S, Mg, I and Fe.
Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen and Nitrogen form the 96% of
protoplasm. C T K M H S S Km
8. Protoplasm is neither a good nor a bad conductor of electricity. It
forms a delimiting membrane in contact with water and solidifies
Physical Properties of Protoplasm continue….
9. Cohesiveness: Particles or molecules of protoplasm are
adhered with each other by forces, such as Vander Waal’s
bonds, that hold long chains of molecules together.
This property varies with the strength of these
forces.
10. Contractility: The contractility of protoplasm is
important for the absorption and removal of water
especially for stomatal operations.
11. Surface tension: The proteins and lipids of the
protoplasm have less surface tension, hence they are
found at the surface forming the membrane.
12. On the other hand the chemical substances (NaCl) have
C T K M H S S Km
high surface tension, so they occur in deeper parts of the
protoplasm.
6.3.3 Cell sizes and shapes

Cell greatly vary in size, shape and also in function.

Group of cells with similar structures are called tissue.
They integrate together to perform similar function,
group of tissue join together to perform similar
function called organ.
They group of organs with related function called organ
system,
The organ system co-ordinating together to form an
organism. C T K M H S S Km
Cell shapes
 The shape of cell vary greatly from organism to organism and
within the organism itself.
 In bacteria, cell shape vary from
round (cocci) to rectangular (rod).
 In virus, shape of the envelope varies from round to hexagonal or
‘T’ shaped.
 In fungi, globular to elongated cylindrical cells and the spores of
fungi vary greatly in shape.
 In plants and animals cells vary in shape according to cell types
such as parenchyma, mesophyll, palisade, tracheid, fiber,
epithelium and others (Figure 6.6).

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6.4. Types of cells
On the basis of the cellular organization and the nuclear
characteristics, the cell can be classified into
 Prokaryotes
 Mesokaryotes and
 Eukaryotes
6.4.1 Prokaryotes
 Those organisms with primitive nucleus are called as
prokaryotes (pro – primitive; karyon – nucleus).
 The DNA lies in the ‘nucleoid’ which is not bound by the
nuclear membrane and therefore it is not a true nucleus and is
also a primitive type of nuclear material.
 The DNA is without histone proteins.
Eg: Bacteria, blue green algae, CMycoplasma,
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Rickettsiae and Spirochaetae.

6.4.2 Mesokaryotes
In the year 1966, scientist Dodge and his coworkers
proposed another kind of organisms called mesokaryotes.
These organisms which shares some of the characters of
both prokaryotes and eukaryotes.
In other words these are organisms intermediate between
pro and eukaryotes.
These contains well organized nucleus with nuclear
membrane and the DNA is organized into chromosomes
but without histone protein components divides through
amitosis similar with prokaryotes.
Certain Protozoa like Noctiluca,
some phytoplanktons like Gymnodinium,
C T K M H S SPeridinium
Km and
Dinoflagellates are representatives of mesokaryotes
6.4.3 Eukaryotes
Those organisms which have true nucleus are called Eukaryotes
(Eu – True; karyon – nucleus).
 The DNA is associated with histones forming the chromosomes.
 Membrane bound organelles are present.
 Few organelles may have risen by endosymbiosis which is a cell
living inside another cell.
 The Organelles like mitochondria and chloroplast well support
this theory.
Origin of Eukaryotic cell:
Endosymbiont theory:
Two eukaryotic organelles believed to be the descendants of the
endosymbiotic prokaryotes.
The ancestors of the eukaryotic cell engulfed a bacterium and
C T K M H S S Km

the bacteria continued to function inside the host cell.

6.5. Plant and Animal cell
6.5.1 Ultra Structure of an Eukaryotic Cell
An eukaryotic cell is highly distinct in its organisation.
It shows several variations in different organisms.
For instance, eukaryotic cells in plants and animals vary
greatly (Figure 6.7)
Animal Cell
 Animal cells are surrounded by cell membrane or
plasma membrane.
 Inside this membrane a gelatinous matrix called
protoplasm is seen to contain nucleus
 The other organelles which include the
i. endoplasmic reticulum,
ii. mitochondria,
iii. golgi bodies,
iv. centrioles,
C T K M H S S Km
v. lysosomes,
vi. ribosomes and
Plant cell
A typical plant cell has prominent cell wall,
a large central vacuole and plastids in addition to
other organelles present in animal cell

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6.5.2 Protoplasm
• Protoplasm is the living content of cell that is
surrounded by plasma membrane.
• It is a colourless material that exists throughout
the cell together with cytoplasm, nucleus and
other organelles.
• Protoplasm is composed of a mixture of small
particles, such as ions, amino acids, mono-
saccharides, water, macromolecules like nucleic
acids, proteins, lipids and polysaccharides.
• It appears colourless, jelly like gelatinous,
viscous elastic and granular.
• It appears foamy due to the presence of large
number of vacuoles.
C T K M H S S Km
• It responds to the stimuli like heat, electric
shock, chemicals and so on.
6.5.3 Cell Wall
 Cell wall is the outermost protective cover of the cell.
 It is present in bacteria, fungi and plants whereas it is absent in
animal cell.
 It was first observed by Robert Hooke.
 It is an actively growing portion.
 It is made up of different complex material in various organism.
in bacteria it is composed of peptidoglycan,
in fungi chitin and fungal cellulose,
in algae cellulose, galactans and mannans.
in plants it is made up of cellulose, hemicellulose, pectin, lignin,
cutin, suberin and silica.
 In plant, cell wall shows three distinct regions
(a) Primary wall
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(b) Secondary wall
(c) Middle lamellae
a. Primary wall
 It is the first layer inner to middle lamella, primarily
consisting of loose network of cellulose microfibrils in a gel
matrix.
 It is thin, elastic and extensible.
 In most plants the microfibrils are made up of cellulose
oriented differently based on shape and thickness of the wall.
 The matrix of the primary wall is composed of
hemicellulose, pectin, glycoprotein and water.
 Hemicellulose binds the microfibrils with matrix and
glycoproteins control the orientation of microfibrils while
pectin serves as filling material of the matrix.
 Cells such as parenchyma and meristems have only primary
C T K M H S S Km
wall.
b. Secondary wall
 Secondary wall is laid during maturation of the cell.
 It plays a key role in determining the shape of a cell.
 It is thick, inelastic and is made up of cellulose and lignin.
 The secondary wall is divided into three sub-layers termed
as S1, S2 and S3 where the cellulose micro-fibrils are
compactly arranged with different orientation forming a
laminated structure and the cell wall strength is increased.
c. Middle lamellae
 It is the outermost layer made up of calcium and
magnesium pectate, deposited at the time of cytokinesis.
 It is a thin amorphous layer which cements two adjacent
cells. C T K M H S S Km

 It is optically inactive (isotropic).

Plasmodesmata and Pits
 Plasmodesmata act as a channel between the
protoplasm of adjacent cells through which many
substances pass through.
 Moreover, at few regions, the secondary wall layer is
laid unevenly whereas the primary wall and middle
lamellae are laid continuously such regions are called
pits.
 The Pits of adjacent cells are opposite to each other.
Each pit has a pit chamber and a pit membrane.
 The pit membrane has many minute pores and thus
they are permeable.
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 The pits are of two types namely simple and bordered
pit.
Functions of cell wall
1. The cell wall plays a vital role in holding several important
functions given below
2. Offers definite shape and rigidity to the cell.
3. Serves as barrier for several molecules to enter the cells.
4. Provides protection to the internal protoplasm against
mechanical injury.
5. Prevents the bursting of cells by maintaining the osmotic
pressure.
6. Plays a major role by acting as a mechanism of defense for the
cells.

C T K M H S S Km
6.5.4 Cell Membrane
The cell membrane is also called cell surface (or) plasma membrane.
It is a thin structure which holds the cytoplasmic content called
‘cytosol’.
It is extremely thin (less than 10nm)
Fluid Mosaic Model
Jonathan Singer and Garth Nicolson (1972) proposed
fluid mosaic model.
It is made up of lipids and proteins together with a little amount
of carbohydrate.
The lipid membrane is made up of phospholipid.
The phospholipid molecule has a hydrophobic tail and
hydrophilic head.
The hydrophobic tail repels water and hydrophilic head
attracts water.
The proteins of the membrane are globular proteins which are found
intermingled between the lipid bilayer most of which are
projecting beyond the lipid bilayer. These proteins are C Tcalled
K M H SasS Km
integral proteins.
Few are superficially attached on either surface of the lipid bilayer
Fluid Mosaic Model
The proteins are involved in transport of molecules across the membranes and also
act as enzymes, receptors (or) antigens.
Carbohydrate molecules of cell membrane are short chain polysaccharides.
These are either bound with ‘glycoproteins’ or ‘glycolipids’ and form a ‘glyocalyx’
The movement of membrane lipids from one side of the membrane to
the other side by vertical movement is called flip flopping or flip flop
movement.
This movement takes place more slowly than lateral diffusion of lipid molecule.
The Phospholipids can have flip flop movement because they have smaller polar
regions, whereas the proteins cannot flip flop because the polar region is
extensive.

Function of Cell Membrane

The functions of the cell membrane is enormous which includes
cell signalling,
transporting nutrients and water, C T K M H S S Km

preventing unwanted substances entering into the cell, and so on.

Cytoplasm
 Cytoplasm is the main arena of various activities of a cell.
 It is the semifluid gelatinous substance that fills the cell.
 It is made up of eighty percent water [80%] and is usually clear and
colourless.
 The cytoplasm is sometimes described as non nuclear content of
protoplasm.
 The cytoplasm serves as a molecular soup where all the cellular
organelles are suspended and bound together by a lipid bilayer plasma
membrane.
 It constitutes dissolved nutrients, numerous salts and acids to dissolve
waste products.
 It is a very good conductor of electricity.
 It gives support and protection to the cell organelles.
 It helps movement of the cellular materials around the cell through a
process called cytoplasmic streaming. C T K M H S S Km
 Further, most cellular activities such as many metabolic pathways
including glycolysis and cell division occur in cytoplasm
6.6 Cell Organelles
6.6.1 Endomembrane System
System of membranes in a eukaryotic cell,
comprises the
 plasma membrane,
 nuclear membrane,
 endoplasmic reticulum,
 golgi apparatus,
 lysosomes and
 vacuolar membranes (tonoplast).
Endomembranes are made up of phospholipids
with embedded proteins that are similar to cell
membrane which occur within the cytoplasm.
The endomembrane system is evolved from the
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inward growth of cell membrane in the
ancestors of the first eukaryotes
6.6.2 Endoplasmic Reticulum
The largest of the internal membranes is called the
endoplasmic reticulum (ER).
The name endoplasmic reticulum was given by K.R. Porter
(1948).
It consists of double membrane.
Morphologically the structure of endoplasmic reticulum
consists of the following
Cisternae are long, broad, flat, sac like structures arranged in
parallel bundles or stacks to form lamella.
The space between membranes of cisternae is filled with fluid.
Vesicles are oval membrane bound vacuolar structure.
Tubules are irregular in shape, branched,
C T K M Hsmooth
S S Km walled,
enclose a space
Endoplasmic Reticulum continue….
Endoplasmic reticulum is associated with nuclear membrane
and cell surface membrane.
It forms a network in cytoplasm and gives mechanical support
to the cell.
Its chemical environment enables protein folding and undergo
modification necessary for their function.
Misfolded proteins are pulled out and are degraded in
endoplasmic reticulum.
When ribosomes are present in the outer surface of the
membrane it is called as rough endoplasmic
reticulum(RER),
when the ribosomes are absent in the endoplasmic
reticulum it is called as smooth Endoplasmic
reticulum(SER).
Rough endoplasmic reticulum is involved in protein synthesis
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum are the sites of lipid synthesis.
The smooth endoplasmic reticulum contains enzymes C T K that
M H S S Km
detoxify lipid soluble drugs, certain chemicals and other
harmful compounds.
6.6.3 Golgi Body (Dictyosomes)
 In 1898, Camillo Golgi visualized a net-like reticulum of fibrils
near the nucleus, were named as Golgi bodies.
 In plant cells they are found as smaller vesicles termed as
dictyosomes.
 Golgi apparatus is a stack of flat membrane enclosed sacs.
 It consist of cisternae, tubules, vesicles and golgi vacuoles.
 In plants, the cisternae are 10-20 in number placed in piles
separated from each other by a thin layer of inter cisternal
cytoplasm often flat or curved.
 Peripheral edge of cisternae forms a network of tubules and
vesicles.
 Tubules interconnect cisternae and are 30-50nm in dimension.
 Vesicles are large round or concave sac. C T K M H S S Km

 They are pinched off from the tubules.

Golgi Body continue….
 Golgi vacuoles are large spherical structures
filled with granular or amorphous substance,
some function like lysosomes.
 Golgi apparatus compartmentalises a series
of steps leading to the production of
functional protein.
 Small pieces of rough endoplasmic reticulum
are pinched off at the ends to form small
vesicles.
 A number of these vesicles then join up and
fuse together to make a Golgi body.
 Golgi complex plays a major role in post
translational modification of proteins and
C T K M H S S Km
glycosylation of lipids
Functions of Golgi Body
1.Production of glycoproteins and glycolipids
2.Transporting and storing of lipids.
3.Formation of lysosomes.
4.Production of digestive enzymes.
5.Cell plate and cell wall formation
6.Secretion of carbohydrates for the formation of
plant cell walls and insect cuticles.
7. Zymogen granules (pro-enzyme / precursor of
all enzyme) are synthesised
C T K M H S S Km
6.6.4 Mitochondria
It was first observed by A. Kolliker (1880).
Named it as Bioplasts - Altmann (1894) .
Named as mitochondria - Benda (1897, 1898)
They are ovoid, rounded, rod shape and pleomorphic
structures.
Mitochondrion consists of double membrane, the
outer and inner membrane.
The outer membrane is smooth, highly permeable to
small molecules
It contains proteins called Porins, which form
channels that allows free diffusion of molecules
smaller than about 1000 daltons
The inner membrane divides mitochondrion into two
C T K M H S S Km
compartments, outer chamber between two
membranes and the inner chamber is filled with
Mitochondria continue…
The inner membrane is convoluted (infoldings),
called crista (plural: cristae).
Cristae contain most of the enzymes for electron
transport system.
Inner chamber of the mitochondrion is filled with
proteinaceous material called mitochondrial
matrix.
The Inner membrane consists of stalked particles
called elementary particles or Fernandez
Moran particles, F1 particles or Oxysomes.
Each particle consists of a base, stem and a
round head.
C T K M H S S Km
In the head, ATP synthase is present for oxidative
phosphorylation.
Mitochondria continue….
Inner membrane is impermeable to most ions, small molecules and maintains the
proton gradient that drives oxidative phosphorylation (Figure 6.15).
Mitochondria contain
73% of proteins,
25-30% of lipids,
5-7 % of RNA,
DNA (in traces) and
enzymes (about 60 types).
Mitochondria are called Power house of a cell, as they produce energy rich ATP.
All the enzymes of Kreb’s cycle are found in the matrix except succinate
dehydrogenase.
Mitochondria consist of circular DNA and 70S ribosome.
They multiply by fission and replicates by strand displacement model.
Because of the presence of DNAs it is semi-autonomous organelle.
Unique characteristic of mitochondria is that they are inherited from female parent
only.
Mitochondrial DNA comparisons are used to trace human C T K M Horigins.
S S Km

It is also used to track and date recent evolutionary time because it mutates 5 to 10 time
faster than DNA in the nucleus
6.6.5 Plastids
The term plastid is derived from the Greek word
Platikas (formed/moulded) and
used by A.F.U. Schimper in 1885.
He classified plastids into following types according
to their structure, pigments and function.
Plastids multiply by fission.
According to Schimper, different kind of plastids can
transform into one another.
• Chloroplasts
• Leucoplasts C T K M H S S Km

• Chromoplasts (contains carotenoids)

6.6.6 Chloroplast
 Chloroplasts are vital organelle found in green plants.
 Chloroplast has a double membrane the outer membrane and the
inner membrane separated by a space called periplastidial space.
 The space enclosed by the inner membrane of chloroplast is filled
with gelatinous matrix, lipo-proteinaceous fluid called stroma.
 Inside the stroma there are flat interconnected sacs called
thylakoid.
 The membrane of thylakoid enclose a space called thylakoid
lumen.
 Grana (singular: Granum) are formed when many of these
thylakoids are stacked together like pile of coins.
 Light is absorbed and converted into chemical energy in the
granum, which is used in stroma to prepare
C T K M H S carbohydrates.
S Km

 Thylakoid contain chlorophyll pigments.

Chloroplast
 The chloroplast contains osmophilic granules,
70s ribosomes,
DNA (circular and non histone) and
RNA.
 These chloroplast genome encodes approximately 30 proteins involved in
photosynthesis including the
components of photosystem I & II,
cytochrome b, f complex and
ATP synthase.
 One of the subunits of RuBisco is encoded by chloroplast DNA.
 It is the major protein component of chloroplast stroma, single most abundant
protein on earth.
 The thylakoid contain small, rounded photosynthetic units called quantosomes.
 Chloroplast is a semi-autonomous organelle and divides by fission (Figure
6.16).
Functions of chloroplast C T K M H S S Km
• Photosynthesis
• Light reactions takes place in granum,
6.6.7 Ribosome
 Ribosomes were first observed by George Palade
(1953) as dense particles or granules in the
electron microscope.
 Electron microscopic observation reveals that
ribosomes are composed of two rounded sub
units, united together to form a complete unit.
 Mg2+ is required for structural cohesion of
ribosomes.
 Biogenesis of ribosome is a
de nova formation,
auto replication and
nucleolar origin.
 Each ribosome is made up of one small and one
large sub-unit
 Ribosomes are the sites of protein synthesis in
the cell. C T K M H S S Km
 Ribosome is not a membrane bound organelle
(Figure 6.17).
Ribosome continue….
 Ribosome consists of RNA 60 % and
protein 40%.
 During protein synthesis, many ribosomes
are attached to the single mRNA and is
called polysomes or polyribosomes.
 The function of polysomes is the
formation of several copies of a particular
polypeptide during protein synthesis.
 They are free in non-protein synthesising
cells.
 In protein synthesising cells they are
linked together with the help of Mg2+
C T K M H S S Km

ions.
6.6.8 Lysosomes (Suicidal Bags of Cell)
 Lysosomes were discovered by Christian
de Duve (1953), these are known as
suicidal bags.
 They are spherical bodies enclosed by a
single unit membrane.
 They are found in eukaryotic cell.
 Lysosomes are small vacuoles formed
when small pieces of golgi body are
pinched off from its tubules.
 They contain a variety of hydrolytic
enzymes, that can digest material within
the cell.
 The membrane around lysosome prevent
C T K M H S S Km
these enzymes from digesting the cell
itself (Figure 6.18).
Functions of ribosomes
1. Intracellular digestion: They digest carbohydrates,
proteins and lipids present in cytoplasm.
2. Autophagy: During adverse condition they digest their
own cell organelles like mitochondria and endoplasmic
reticulum
3. Autolysis: Lysosome causes self destruction of cell.
4. Ageing: Lysosomes have autolytic enzymes that disrupts
intracellular molecules.
5. Phagocytosis: Large cells or contents are engulfed and
digested by macrophages, thus forming a phagosome in
cytoplasm. These phagosome fuse with lysosome for
further digestion.
C T K M H S S Km
6. Exocytosis: Lysosomes release their enzymes outside the
cell to digest other cells (Figure 6.19).
6.6.9 Microbodies
Eukaryotic cells contain many enzyme bearing
membrane enclosed vesicles called microbodies.
They are single unit membrane bound cell organelles.
Eg: Peroxisomes and glyoxysomes.

6.6.10 Peroxisomes
Peroxisomes were identified as organelles by
Christian de Duve (1967).
Peroxisomes are small spherical bodies and single
membrane bound organelle.
It takes part in photorespiration and associated with
glycolate metabolism.
In plants, leaf cells have many peroxisomes.
It is also commonly found in liver and kidneyC T of
K M H S S Km
mammals.
These are also found in cells of protozoa and yeast
6.6.11 Glyoxysomes
Glyoxysome was discovered by Harry Beevers (1961).
It is a single membrane bound organelle.
It is a sub cellular organelle and contains enzymes of
glyoxylate pathway.
β-oxidation of fatty acid occurs in glyoxysomes of
germinating seeds
Eg: Castor seeds.

6.6.12 Sphaerosomes
It is spherical in shape and enclosed by single unit
membrane. C T K M H S S Km

Eg: Storage of fat in the endosperm cells of oil seeds.

6.6.13 Centrioles
Centrioles consists of nine triplet peripheral fibrils made up of
tubulin.
The central part of the centriole is called hub, is connected to
the tubules of the peripheral triplets by radial spokes
(9+0 pattern).
The centriole form the basal body of cilia or flagella and spindle
fibers which forms the spindle apparatus in animal cells.
The membrane is absent in centriole
(non-membranous organelle)

C T K M H S S Km
6.6.14 Vacuoles
 In plant cells vacuoles are large, bounded by a single unit membrane called
Tonoplast.
 The Vacuoles contain cell sap, which is a solution of sugars, amino acids,
mineral salts, waste chemical and anthocyanin pigments.
 Beetroot cells contain anthocyanin pigments in their vacuoles.
 Vacuoles accumulate products like tannins.
 The osmotic expansion of a cell kept in water is chiefly regulated by vacuole
and the water enters the vacuole by osmosis.
 The major function of plant vacuole is to maintain water pressure known as
turgor pressure, which maintains the plant structure.
 Vacuoles organises itself into a storage/ sequestration compartment.

Eg: Vacuoles store, most of the sucrose of the cell.

i. Sugar in Sugar beet and Sugar cane.
ii. Malic acid in Apple.
iii. Acids in Citrus fruits. C T K M H S S Km
iv. Flavonoid pigment cyanidin 3 rutinoside in the petals of
Antirrhinum.
6.7. Nucleus
 Nucleus is an important unit of cell which controls all activities of the cell.
 Nucleus holds the hereditary information.
 It is the largest among all cell organelles.
 It may be spherical, cuboidal, ellipsoidal or discoidal.
 It is surrounded by a double membrane structure called nuclear envelope,
which has the inner and outer membrane.
 The inner membrane is smooth without ribosomes and the outer
membrane is rough by the presence of ribosomes
 The membrane is perforated by pores known as nuclear pores which
allows materials such as mRNA, ribosomal units, proteins and other
macromolecules to pass in and out of the nucleus.
 The pores enclosed by circular structures called annuli.
 The pore and annuli form the pore complex.
 The space between two membranes is called perinuclear space.
 Nuclear space is filled with nucleoplasm, a Cgelatinous
T K M H S S Km matrix has

uncondensed chromatin network and a conspicuous nucleolius.

Nucleus continue….
 The Chromatin network is an uncoiled, indistinct and remain thread
like during the interphase.
 It has little amount of RNA and DNA bound to histone proteins in
eukaryotic cells (Figure 6.22).
 During cell division chromatin is condensed into an organized form
called chromosome.
 The portion an eukaryotic chromosome which is transcribed into
mRNA contains active genes that are nottightly condensed during
interphase is called Euchromatin.
 The portion of an eukaryotic chromosome that is not transcribed into
mRNA which remains condensed during interphase and stains
intensely is called Heterochromatin.
 Nucleolus is a small, dense, spherical structure either present singly
or in multiples inside the nucleus and it’s not membrane bound.
 Nucleoli possess genes for rRNA and tRNA. C T K M H S S Km
Functions of the nucleus
1. Controlling all cellular activities
2. Storing the genetic or hereditary
information.
3. Coding the information from DNA for the
production of enzymes and proteins.
4. DNA duplication and transcription takes
place in the nucleus.
5. In nucleolus ribosomal biogenesis takes
place. C T K M H S S Km
6.7.1 Chromosomes
Strasburger (1875) first reported its present in eukaryotic cell
The term ‘chromosome’ was introduced by Waldeyer in 1888.
First proved that chromosomes are the physical carriers of genes
Bridges (1916)
It is made up of DNA and associated proteins.

C T K M H S S Km
Structure of chromosome
The chromosomes are composed of thread like strands called
chromatin which is made up of DNA, protein and RNA.
Each chromosome consists of two symmetrical structures called
chromatids.
During cell division the chromatids forms a well organized
chromosomes with definite size and shape.
They are identical and are called sister chromatids.
A typical chromosome has narrow zones called constrictions.
There are two types of constrictions, namely primary constriction and
secondary constriction.
The primary constriction is made up of centromere and kinetochore.
Both the chromatids are united at centromere, whose number varies.
The monocentric chromosome has one centromere and the polycentric
chromosome has many centromeres. C T K M H S S Km
Centromere contains a complex system of protein fibres called
kinetochore.
 Besides primary there are few secondary constrictions, are present.
 Nucleoli develop from these secondary constrictions are called nucleolar
organizers.
 Secondary constrictions contain the genes for ribosomal RNA which induce
the formation of nucleoli and are called nucleolar organizer regions
 A satellite or SAT Chromosome is a short chromosomal segment or
rounded body separated from main chromosome by a relatively elongated
secondary constriction.
It is a morphological entity in certain chromosomes.
 Telomere is the terminal part of chromosome.
It offers stability to the chromosome.
 DNA of the telomere has specific sequence of nucleotides.
 Telomere in all eukaryotes are composed of many repeats of short DNA
sequences (5’TTAGGG3’ sequence in Neurospora crassa and human
beings).
 Maintenance of telomeres appears to be an important factor in determining
C T K M H S S Km
the life span and reproductive capacity of cells, so studies of telomeres and
telomerase have the promise of providing new insights into conditions such
Based on the position of centromere,
chromosomes are called telocentric (terminal centromere),
acrocentric (terminal centromere capped by telomere),
sub metacentric (centromere subterminal) and
metacentric (centromere median).
The eukaryotic chromosome may be
Rod shaped (telocentric and acrocentric),
L-shaped (sub-metacentric) and
V-shaped (metacentric)

C T K M H S S Km
Based on the functions of chromosome it can be
divided into
1. autosomes and
2. sex chromosomes
Autosomes are present in all cells
controlling somatic characteristics of an organism.
In human diploid cell, 44 chromosomes
are autosomes whereas 2 chromosomes are sex
chromosomes.
Sex chromosomes are involved in the
determination of sex. C T K M H S S Km
Special types of chromosomes
The chromosomes are larger in size and are called giant chromosomes in certain plants and
they are found in the suspensors of the embryo.
They are 1. polytene chromosome and
2. lamp brush chromosome
Polytene chromosomes
 It observed in the salivary glands of Drosophila (fruit fly) by E.G. Balbiani in 1881.
 In larvae of many flies, midges (Dipthera) and some insects the interphase chromosomes
duplicates and reduplicates without nuclear division.
 A single chromosome which is present in multiple copies form a structure called polytene
chromosome which can be seen in light microscope.
 They are genetically active.
 There is a distinct alternating dark bands and light inter-bands.
 About 95% of DNA are present in bands and 5% in inter-bands.
 The polytene chromosome has extremely large puff called Balbiani rings which is seen in
Chironomous larvae. It is also known as chromosomal puff.
 Puffing of bands are the sites of intense RNA synthesis.
 As this chromosome occurs in the salivary gland it is known
C T K M Has
S Ssalivary
Km gland
chromosomes.
 Gene expression, transcription of genes and RNA synthesis occurs in the bands along the
Lampbrush chromosomes
 It occur at the diplotene stage of first meiotic prophase in oocytes of an
animal Salamandar and in giant nucleus of the unicellular alga
Acetabularia.
 It was first observed by Flemming in 1882.
 The highly condensed chromosome forms the chromosomal axis, from
which lateral loops of DNA extend as a result of intense RNA synthesis.

C T K M H S S Km
6.8. Flagella
Prokaryotic Flagellum
 Bacterial flagella are helical
appendages helps in motility.
 They are much thinner than
flagella or cilia of eukaryotes.
 The filament contains a protein
called flagellin.
 The structure consists of a basal
body associated with cytoplasmic
membrane and cell wall with short
hook and helical filament.
 Bacteria rotates their helical
flagella and propels rings present C T K M H S S Km

in the basal body which are

Structure of flagella in Bacteria
 The gram positive bacteria contain only two basal rings.
 S-ring is attached to the inside of peptidoglycan and M-ring is attached to the
cell membrane.
 In Gram negative bacteria two pairs of rings proximal and distal ring are
connected by a central rod.
They are L-Lipopolysaccharide ring, P-Peptidoglycan ring, S-Super
membrane ring and M-membrane ring.
The outer pair L and P - rings is attached to cell wall and the
inner pair S and M rings attached to cell membrane
 Mechanism of flagellar movement – proton motive force
 In flagellar rotation only proton movements are involved and not ATP.
 Protons flowing back into the cell through the basal body rings of each
flagellum drives it to rotate. These rings constitute the rotary motor.
 The proton motive force drives the flagellar motor.
 For the rotation of flagellum the energy is derived from proton gradient across the
plasma membrane generated by oxidative phosphorylation.
C T K M H S S Km
 In bacteria flagellar motor is located in the plasma membrane where the
oxidative phosphorylation takes place.
6.8.2 Eukaryotic Flagellum– Cell Motility
Structure
 Eukaryotic Flagella are enclosed by unit membrane and it arises from a
basal body.
 Flagella is composed of outer nine pairs of microtubules with two
microtubules in its centre (9+2 arrangement).
 Flagella are microtubule projection of the plasma membrane.
 Flagellum is longer than cilium (as long as 200μm).
 The structure of flagellum has an axoneme made up microtubules and
protein tubulin
Movement
 Outer microtubule doublet is associated with axonemal dynein which
generates force for movement.
 The movement is ATP driven.
 The interaction between tubulin and dynein is the mechanism for the
contraction of cilia and flagella. C T K M H S S Km
 Dynein molecules uses energy from ATP to shift the adjacent
microtubules. This movement bends the cilium or flagellum
 C T K M H S S Km

Structure of Eukaryotic flagellum

C T K M H S S Km

Structure of
Cilia & flagella
6.8.3 Cilia
Cilia (plural) are short cellular, numerous microtubule
bound projections of plasma membrane.
Cilium (singular) is membrane bound structure made up
of basal body rootlets, basal plate and shaft.
The shaft or axoneme consists of nine pairs of
microtubule doublets, arranged in a circle along the
periphery with a two central tubules, (9+2)
arrangement of microtubules is present.
Microtubules are made up of tubulin.
The motor protein dynein connects the outer
microtubule pair and links themC Tto the central pair.
K M H S S Km

Nexin links the peripheral doublets of microtubules

Summary
Cell is the fundamental unit of all organisms which was identified 300 years ago.
Microscope offers scope for observing smaller objects and organisms. It works on the
principle of light and lenses. Different microscope offers clarity in observing objects
depending on the features to be observed. Micrometric techniques are used in
measurement of microscopic objects. Electron microscopes are used in understanding
the ultra-structural details of cell. Cell theory and doctrine states that all organism are
made up of cell and it contains genetic material. Protoplasm theory explains nature and
different properties of protoplasm. Cell size and shape differ from type of tissue or
organs and organisms. Based on cellular organization and nuclear characters the
organisms are classified into prokaryote, eukaryote and mesokaryote.
Key difference between plant cell and animal cell is the cell wall. Protoplasm is the
colourless mass includes the cytoplasm, cell organelles and nucleus. Cell wall is the
outermost protective covering with three regions primary, secondary wall and middle
lamellae. Cell membrane holds the cytoplasmic content called cytosol. Cytoplasm
includes the matrix and the cell organelles excluding nucleus. Endomembrane system
includes endoplasmic reticulum, golgi apparatus, chloroplast, lysosomes, vacuoles,
nuclear membrane and plasma membrane. Nucleus is the control unit of the cell, it
carries hereditary information. Chromosomes are made up of DNA and associated
proteins. Bacterial flagella are made up of helical polymers of a protein called flagellin.
Proton motive force are involved in flagellar rotation.CTKInMEukaryotes
H S S Km flagella are made
up microtubules and protein called dynein and nexin and the movement is driven by
ATP
C T K M H S S Km