SYLLABUS

• the unique physical properties of water, including

melting point, boiling point, density in solid and liquid
phases and surface tension, can be explained by its
molecular shape and hydrogen bonding between molecules
Melting point and boiling point
• Water has a much higher melting point and boiling point than
similarly sized molecules. This is due to the relatively strong
hydrogen bonds between molecules.
Density in solid and liquid
• Unlike most substances, solid water (ice) is less dense than
liquid water. This makes ice float.

• Explanation: In solid ice, water molecules arranged in a

hexagonal arrangement as shown below. This leaves a large
space between water molecules, decreasing the density of ice.
Surface tension
• Surface tension is the ability of the surface of a liquid to resist external forces.

• Water has high surface tension due to strong hydrogen bonds. Water molecules at the
surface are pulled downwards by hydrogen bonds to nearby water molecules. This
force holds droplets of water together.
SOLUBILIT Y
FROM THE SYLLABUS

• the solubility of substances in water, including ionic and

polar and non-polar molecular substances, can be
explained by the intermolecular forces, including ion-
dipole interactions between species in the substances and
water molecules, and is affected by changes in temperature
DEFINITIONS

• Write definitions for the following words:

– Solubility
– Solution
– Solute
– Solvent
WHAT IS SOLUBILITY?

The solubility of a substance is the amount of

that substance that will dissolve in a given
amount of solvent.
WHAT IS A SOLUTION?

• A solution is a
homogeneous mixture
formed when one substance
dissolves in another.
• The substance that is
dissolved = the solute
• The substance that dissolves
the solute = the solvent
EXAMPLES OF SOLUTIONS
SOLVATION (THE PROCESS
OF DISSOLVING)
The formation of a solution from a solute and a solvent
involves the rearrangement of bonds. For example, when a
solid dissolves in a liquid:
• the bonds between the particles in the solid (solute) are
broken as the particles move away to mix with the liquid
(solvent)
• the bonds between the liquid particles are disrupted as the
solute particles move in between them
• new bonds are formed between the solute particles and the
liquid particles.
SOLVATION CONT…

• Whether or not a substance dissolves depends on the

relative strength of the bonds that need to be broken and
the new bonds that form
• Remember: energy is needed to break bonds and is
released when new bonds are made
• If the bonds being broken are of similar strength or weaker
than the new bonds being formed, then the solute should
dissolve in the solvent. There are exceptions to this!
 TIPS FOR WRITTEN EXPLANATIONS
1. State which intermolecular forces are exhibited by
•the solute, and
• the solvent.
2. Identify the predominant intermolecular force exhibited by
• the solute, and
• the solvent.
3. State which new intermolecular forces can form between the solute and the solvent.
4. If the substances are soluble this is because
• the energy released when new solute-solvent forces form is sufficient to overcome the
original solute-solute and solvent-solvent forces, OR
• the strength of the new solute-solvent forces formed are sufficient to overcome the
original solute-solute and solvent-solvent forces.
5. If the substances are insoluble this is because
• the energy released when new solute-solvent forces form is not sufficient to overcome
either the original solute-solute forces or the original solvent-solvent forces, OR
• the strength of the new solute-solvent forces formed are not sufficient to overcome either
the original solute-solute forces or the original solvent-solvent forces.
FILL IN THE TABLES

Solute Solvent Example Diagram Explanation

Polar Polar

Non-polar Polar

Non-polar Non-polar
 POLAR SOLUTES AND POLAR SOLVENTS

The intermolecular forces exhibited by both water and

methanol are dispersion forces, dipole-dipole forces and
hydrogen bonding. The predominant intermolecular force for
both water and methanol is hydrogen bonding. New hydrogen
bonds can be formed between water and methanol molecules.
These two substances are soluble in one another because the
strength of the new water-methanol forces formed are
sufficient to overcome the original water-water forces and the
original methanol-methanol forces.
 WILL PROPANONE (=CH 3 CH 3 CO = ACETONE) DISSOLVE?

• Propanone exhibits dispersion and dipole-dipole forces, water

exhibits dispersion and dipole-dipole forces as well as hydrogen
bonds. The predominant force exhibited by propanone and water
are dipole-dipole forces and hydrogen bonds respectively.
• New hydrogen bonds are formed between propanone and water
• The strength of the new water-propanone hydrogen bonds
formed are sufficient to overcome the original water-water
hydrogen bonds and propanone-propanone dipole-dipole forces.
Therefore propanone will dissolve in water.
NON-POLAR SOLUTE & POLAR SOLVENT

The intermolecular forces exhibited by tetrachloromethane

are dispersion forces. The intermolecular forces exhibited
by water are dispersion forces, dipole-dipole forces and
hydrogen bonding. The predominant intermolecular force
exhibited by tetrachloromethane is dispersion forces, while
for water is hydrogen bonding. New dispersion forces may
be formed between tetrachloromethane and water
molecules.
These substances are insoluble because the strength of the
new tetrachloromethane-water dispersion forces formed are
not sufficient to overcome the original water-water
hydrogen bonds.
NON-POLAR SOLUTE AND SOLVENT

• Tetrachloromethane and hexane both exhibit dispersion

forces which is the predominant force for both molecules.
• New dispersion forces are formed between
tetrachloromethane and hexane.
• The strength of the new tetrachloromethane-hexane
dispersion forces formed is sufficient to overcome the
original tetrachloromethane-tetrachloromethane and hexane-
hexane dispersion forces, allowing tetrachloromethane to
dissolve in hexane.
QUICK CHECK

Predict the solubility of acetic acid, CH3COOH, in

water and in hexane. Explain your prediction in
terms of the bonds broken and formed in the
dissolving process.
 ANSWER
• Acetic acid molecules exhibit dispersion forces, dipole-dipole forces and
hydrogen bonds. Water molecules exhibit dispersion forces, dipole-dipole
forces and hydrogen bonds. The predominant force for both solute and
solvent is hydrogen bonding.
• If acetic acid is to dissolve in water, hydrogen bonds between the acetic acid
molecules and between the water molecules need to be broken. New
hydrogen bonds can form between the water and acetic acid molecules in
the solution.
• As a result, because the new hydrogen bonds formed between acetic acid
and water have sufficient energy to overcome the hydrogen bonding
between the original acetic acid molecules and water molecules, acetic acid
will dissolve in water.
 ANSWER
• Acetic acid molecules exhibit dispersion forces, dipole-dipole forces and
hydrogen bonds. Hexane molecules exhibit dispersion forces only. The
predominant force for acetic acid is hydrogen bonding and the
predominant force for hexane is dispersion forces.
• If acetic acid were to dissolve in hexane, hydrogen bonds between the acetic
acid molecules would need to be broken, as well as dispersion forces
between the hexane molecules. New dispersion forces could form between
acetic acid molecules and hexane molecules if a solution were to form.
• Because the energy released when new dispersion forces form between
acetic acid and hexane are not sufficient to overcome the energy required
to break the hydrogen bonds between acetic acid molecules, acetic acid will
not dissolve in hexane.
DO ALL POLAR SOLUTES
DISSOLVE IN WATER?
• Some molecules have a polar end group and a non-polar
hydrocarbon chain
• Eg alcohols

Hydrocarbon chain Hydroxyl group

O
(non-polar) (polar)

R H
DISSOLVING ALCOHOLS
For alcohol to dissolve in
water:
1. Hydrogen bonds between
the alcohol molecules
must be broken
2. Hydrogen bonds between
the water molecules must
be broken
3. New hydrogen bonds
between the water and the
alcohol molecules need to
be formed
 SOLUBILITY VS CHAIN LENGTH
Alcohol Formula Solubility (mol / 100
g water)
Methanol CH3OH Completely soluble

Ethanol CH3CH2OH Completely soluble

Propan-1-ol CH3CH2CH2OH Completely soluble

Butan-1-ol CH3CH2CH2CH2OH 0.11

Pentan-1-ol CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2OH 0.030

Hexan-1-ol CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2OH 0.0058

Heptan-1-ol CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2OH 0.00086

Octan-1-ol CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2OH Completely insoluble

 EFFECT OF CHAIN LENGTH
• Even though the -OH end of the alcohol molecule is able to
form a hydrogen bond with water molecules, the long
hydrocarbon chain will have to push some water molecules
apart to fit in between them. This would require some hydrogen
bonds between the water molecules to be broken. Any new
bonds that form between the water molecules and the
hydrocarbon part of the alcohol molecule would be dispersion
forces, which are weaker than the hydrogen bonds that need to
be broken. Therefore, the alcohols with longer hydrocarbon
chains are less soluble in water than the alcohols with shorter
chains.
• Conversely long chain alcohols are soluble in hexane.
DISSOLVING IONIC
COMPOUNDS
• The solvation of ionic compounds can be explained with the same
ideas as used for covalent molecules.
• When the ionic compound dissolves, the hydrogen bonds between the
water molecules must be disturbed and the ionic bonds holding the
ions in the lattice must also be broken. To provide the energy required
for these bond-breaking processes, there must be new bonds formed
between the separated ions and the water molecules in the solution.
ION-DIPOLE FORCES

• The attractive force between an ion and polar molecules is called an

ion–dipole force and it can be stronger than hydrogen bonds
• Positive ions attract the partial negatively charged ‘end’ of the water
molecule, the lone pairs of the oxygen atoms. Negative ions attract the
partial positively charged ‘end’ of the water molecule, the hydrogen
atoms.
ION-DIPOLE FORCES
POINTS TO NOTE

• Ionic compounds are not soluble in non-polar solvents.

The only bonds that could form between the ions and the
non-polar solvent molecules are dispersion forces, which
are not sufficiently strong to cause disruption of the ionic
lattice.
• Not all ionic substances are soluble in water
TRY THESE…
1. Which substance in each of the following pairs is likely
to be more soluble in water? Explain your choices.
a) Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) or benzene (C6H6)
b) Butan-1-ol (CH3CH2CH2CH2OH) or hexane(C6H14)
c) Methanol (CH3OH) or hexan-1-ol (C6H13OH)
2. Which of the following substances would you predict to
be soluble in water?
sodium phosphate propan-1-ol C3H7OH Turpentine C10H16

zinc carbonate iron(III) sulfide hydrogen bromide

3. Draw the particles present in an aqueous solution of
potassium cyanide, labelling the bonds between and
within the particles. Identify which bonds are weak and
which are strong.
4. Explain what bonds are broken and formed during the
dissolving of potassium bromide in water. Include
diagrams to support your answer.
 MEASURING
CONCENTRATION
FROM THE SYLLABUS

• solutions can be classified as saturated, unsaturated or

supersaturated; the concentration of a solution is
defined as the quantity of solute dissolved in a quantity of
solution; this can be represented in a variety of ways,
including by the number of moles of the solute per litre of
solution (mol L-1) and the mass of the solute per litre of
solution (g L-1) or parts per million (ppm)
CONCENTRATION
• The concentration of a solution is a measure of the
number of particles of the solute in the solvent.
• Concentration can be measured as:
– ppm (parts per million)
– % composition (%w/w, %w/v, % v/v)
– Moles per litre (mol L-1)
– Grams per litre (g L-1)
PARTS PER MILLION
• Ratio of parts of solute to 1 million parts of
solution
• Usually applied to very dilute solutions
• Abbreviated as ppm
• ppm = 1g/m3 = 1mg/L = 1μg/mL = 1 mg/kg = 1
µg/g
• x 106
• Assume 1ml of water weighs 1g
CONVERTING CONCENTRATIONS TO
PPM ppm = 1g/m = 1mg/L = 1μg/mL = 1 mg/kg = 1
3

µg/g
A solution has a concentration of 1.25g/L. What is
its concentration in ppm?
Logic: convert concentration to mg/L
1. Convert the mass in grams to a mass in
milligrams:
1.25g = 1.25 x 1000mg = 1250mg
2. Re-write the concentration in mg/L = 1250mg/L
= 1250ppm
YOUR TURN…

A solution has a concentration of 0.5mg/mL. What

is its concentration in ppm?
1. Convert the volume to litres:
volume = 1mL = 1mL ÷ 1000mL/L = 0.001L
2. Re-write the concentration in mg/L =
0.5mg/0.001L = 500mg/L = 500ppm
1. A solution has a concentration of 0.033g/kg. What is its
concentration in ppm?
2. A solution has a concentration of 2250μg/kg. What is its
concentration in ppm?
3. 150mL of an aqueous sodium chloride solution contains
0.0045g NaCl. Calculate the concentration of NaCl in
parts per million (ppm).
4. What mass in milligrams of potassium nitrate is present
in 0.25kg of a 500ppm KNO3(aq)?
5. A student is provided with 500mL of 600ppm solution of
sucrose. What volume of this solution in millilitres
contains 0.15g of sucrose?
ppm = 1g/m3 = 1mg/L = 1μg/mL = 1 mg/kg = 1
µg/g
PERCENTAGE CONCENTRATION
Percentage Concentration Meaning

• used if both chemicals are liquids

• e.g. 50 ml of acetic acid is diluted with 50 mL of
% v/v
water. There is now 50 ml of acetic acid in a total
volume per volume
volume of 100 mL therefore the acetic acid
concentration is now 50% v/v

• used if a solid is dissolved in liquid

% w/v
• e.g. 10 g NaCl is dissolved in a total volume of 100
weight per volume
ml. Therefore the NaCl concentration is 10 % w/v

• used if the weight of each chemical is given

% w/w • e.g. 10 g NaCl in 90 g water so the total mass of the
weight per weight solution is 100 g, therefore the concentration of
NaCl is 10% w/w
PERCENTAGE CONCENTRATION
CALCULATIONS
An aqueous solution contains 700g water and 45g sodium
hydroxide. What is the percent by mass of sodium
hydroxide?
1. Write the equation:
mass % NaOH = mass(NaOH) ÷ (mass(NaOH) + mass(H2O)) x 100

2. Substitute the values (all masses must have the same

units):
mass(NaOH) = 45g mass(H2O) = 700g

mass % NaOH = 45 ÷ (45 + 700) x 100 = 6.04%

PERCENTAGE CONCENTRATION
CALCULATIONS
An aqueous solution contains 42% by mass ethanol.
What mass of ethanol is present in 250g of the
solution?
1. Re-arrange the equation to find mass of ethanol:
mass % ethanol = mass(ethanol) ÷ mass(solution) x 100
mass(ethanol) = mass % ethanol ÷ 100 x mass(solution)
2. Substitute in the values:
mass(ethanol) = 42 ÷ 100 x 250 = 105g
YOUR TURN…
1. What is the weight/volume percentage concentration of
250mL of aqueous sodium chloride solution containing
5g NaCl?
2. 2.0L of an aqueous solution of potassium chloride
contains 45.0g of KCl. What is the weight/volume
percentage concentration of this solution?
3. 15mL of an aqueous solution of sucrose contains 750mg
sucrose. What is the weight/volume percentage
concentration of this solution?
4. 186.4L of aqueous sodium hydroxide solution contains
1.15kg NaOH. What is the weight/volume percentage
concentration of this solution in g/100mL?
GRAMS PER LITRE MOLES PER
LITRE
• The concentration of a • Concentrations expressed in mole
per litre (mol L-1) allow chemists to
solution in gram per compare the amount, in moles, of
litre (g L-1) indicates atoms, molecules or ions present in
the mass, in grams, of a given volume of solution.
• Concentration (mol L-1) =
solute dissolved in 1 L
of solution. • c=
• Note: the abbreviation for mol L-1 is
• Concentration (gL-1) = M (molar).
STOICHIOMETRY ROAD MAP