Air Pollution Control Methods and Equipment

Source Correction Methods

• The most effective means of dealing with the problem
of air pollution is to prevent the formation of the
pollutants or minimize their emission at the source it
self.
• In the case of industrial pollutants, this can often be
achieved by investigating various approaches at an early
stage of process design and development, and selecting
those methods which do not contribute to air pollution
or have the minimum air pollution potential.
• These are known as source correction methods.
 Air Pollution Control Methods and Equipment
Source Correction Methods
• Raw material changes: If a particular raw material is
responsible for causing air pollution, use of purer grade
of raw material is often beneficial and may reduce the
formation of undesirable impurities and byproducts or
may even eliminate the troublesome effluent.
• Ex. Use of low-suplhur fuel in place of high-sulphur
ones.
 Air Pollution Control Methods and Equipment
Process Changes
• Process changes involving new or modified techniques offer
important way of lowering atmospheric pollutant emissions.
• Radical changes in chemical and petrochemical refining
industries have resulted in minimizing of the release of materials
to the atmosphere.
Ex. Rotary kilns are a major source of dust generation in cement
plants. Some degree of dust control may be achieved in the kiln
operation by adjusting operating conditions.
Reduction of gas velocities within the kiln, modification of the
rate and location of feed introduction and employment of a dense
curtain of light-weight chain at the discharge end of the kiln can
lead to dust control.
 Air Pollution Control Methods and Equipment
Equipment Modification or Replacement
With suitable modification or replacement of process equipment
pollutant emissions can be minimized.
Ex. 1) The unburnt CO and hydrocarbons in the cylinders of an
automobile engine, which are otherwise emitted into the
atmosphere through the tail pipe, can be burnt by injecting air
into the hot exhaust manifold of the engine.
2) In petroleum refineries, hydrocarbon vapors are released into
the atmosphere from storage tanks due to temperature changes,
direct evaporation, and displacement during filling.
These losses can be minimized by designing the tanks with
floating roof covers or by pressuring tanks.
 Air Pollution Control Methods and Equipment
In addition to the above mentioned source correction
methods, air pollutant emissions from industrial operations
can be reduced by proper equipment maintenance,
housekeeping and cleanliness in the facilities and
premises.
Plants often have excessive leakage around ducts, piping
valves and pumps. Many such leaks can be prevented by
checking the seals and gaskets routinely.
Floors, decks, storage bins, loading areas, and material
conveyors must be kept clean to reduce dust pollution.
 Particulate Control Equipment

The basic mechanisms of removing particulate matter

from as streams may be classified as:
1. Gravitational settling
2. Centrifugal impaction
3. Inertial impaction
4. Direct interception
5. Diffusion
6. Electrostatic precipitation
 Particulate Control Equipment

Equipment presently available, which make use of one

or more of the above mechanisms, fall into the
following five broad categories
1. Gravitational settling chambers
2. Cyclone separators
3. Fabric filters
4. Electrostatic precipitators
5. Wet collectors (Scrubbers)
 Gravitational Settling Chambers
Gravitational settling chambers are generally used to remove
large, abrasive particles (usually > 50 m) from gas streams.
They offer low pressure drop and require simple
maintenance, but their efficiencies are quite low for particles
smaller than 50 m, Since most of the troublesome particles
have much smaller sizes than 50 m.
These devices are normally used as precleaners prior to
passing the gas stream through high efficiency collection
devices.
The simplest form of horizontal type settling chamber is
shown in following fig.
In the settling chamber the gas stream, with its entrained
particles, is allowed to flow at a low velocity, allowing
sufficient time for the particles to settle down.
A more elaborate settling chamber is the Howard type
whose simplified diagram is shown in Fig in next slide
By inserting several trays, the collection efficiency of the
device is improved since the gas flow velocity in the
chamber remains substantially the same and yet each
particle has a much shorter distance to fall before reaching
the bottom of the passage between trays.
 Concept of Hydraulic Diameter

Hydraulic Dia, Dh = 4 x hydraulic radius= Equivalent

diameter
Hydraulic radius = C/s of flow / wetted perimeter
= (WH) / 2(W+ H)

2WH
Dh 
W  H
 Design Concepts
For a settling chamber having dimensions L x W x H,
and n number of trays including the bottom surface,
the hydraulic diameter for flow passage between the
trays is given by
2WH
Dh 
W  H
And the Reynolds number,
vDh 
Re 

Where v, the velocity inside the chamber, is
given by Q
v
nWH
Where Q = volumetric flow rate of the gas stream.
Substituting for v and Dh we get
2Q
Re 
n W  H 
The spacing between the trays, H, is given by

H
H 
n
Provided there is no dust layer initially present on the tray
surface, Substituting for H in Eq. For Re , we have

2Q
Re 
 nW  H 
If a layer of dust Hd is initially present, then
H
H   Hd
n
With this modification,
2Q
Re 
 nW  H  nH d 
For laminar flow conditions (Re < 2300) within the trays,
particles of size dp of a particular material will settle a
distance y with a terminal velocity v t in time t. During this
time the particles are transported a distance L with the
velocity of the gas stream. Equating these two, we have:
y L

vt v
The value of y can be found from a knowledge of the
particle settling velocity.
If the particles are uniformly distributed over the incoming
stream, the efficiency of collection

  y H or
Lvt nWLvt
 
vH Q
 The terminal settling velocity of the particles is found by
equating the drag force on the particle with the weight
minus the buoyancy of the particle:
ForceofGra vity   p gVP
Bouyancyofparticle   g gVP
2
v
f d  C D Ap  g
2
Ap  C / sareaoftheparticleperpendiculartothedirectonofmovement
  2  1  3
F  C D  d p   g vt   d p  p   g g
2

 4  2  6
Where
p = density of the particle,
g = density of gas, and
dp = particle diameter.
Rearranging, we get

4 gd p  p   g 
vt 
3C Dg
 Where CD is the drag coefficient which is related to the
particle Reynolds number,
Re p  d p  g vt /  g .

The general drag coefficient curve for spherical particles

may be represented by three relationships. In the Stokes’
law region,
24
CD   for Re p  1
Re p
In the turbulent region (Rep > 1000), the drag coefficient
CD becomes almost constant with a value of 0.45.
CD = 0.45 for Rep > 1000
Between this region and the Stokes’ law region of laminar
flow around the particle, thee is the transition region Several
empirical equations have been suggested for this region,
such as that given by Schiller and Naumann;

CD 
24
Re p

1  0.15 Re p
0.687


Substituting Eq. (5.13) into Eq. (5.12), we can calculate

the terminal settling velocity in the Stokes’ region.
gd  p   g 
2
p
vt 
18 g
In the transition region, where CD is a function of
Rep, Eq. (5.12) is difficult to solve except by a trial-
and-error method. This problem has been over-come
by rearranging Eq. (5.12) as

4 gd  p   g  g
e
p
C D Re 2

3
p 2
g

Values of CDRep2, CD and Rep are available in the

Chemical Engineering Handbook from which vt can
be calculated.
The minimum particle size that can be removed
with 100% efficiency can be found from the
following Eq.
18 g Q
d p , min 
nWLg  p   g 
For Turbulent flow, the following theoretical equation
can be used for calculating the collection efficiency

 nWLvt 
  1  exp  
 Q 
 Centrifugal Separators
Centrifugal force is a pseudo force that is really the result of the
body’s inertia carrying it straight while some other force makes it
move in a curved path.
Cyclone separator utilize a centrifugal force generated by a spinning
gas stream to separate the particular matter from the carrier gas.
The centrifugal force on particles in a spinning gas is much greater
than gravity
Therefore, cyclones are effective in the removal of much smaller
particles than gravitational settling chambers and require much less
space to handle the same gas volumes
 Centrifugal Separators

Forces developed in Centrifugal separation

Centrifugal separators make use of the common principle that an
object whirled or revolved about an axis or centre point at a constant
radial distance from the point is acted on by a force.
The object being whirled about an axis is constantly changing
direction and is thus accelerating even through the rotational speed is
constant. This centripetal force acts in a direction toward the centre of
rotation.
Centripetal : Moving or tending to move towards centre.
If the object being rotated in a cylindrical container, the contents of
fluid exert an equal and opposite force, called centrifugal force,
outward to the walls of the container.

Equations for centrifugal force

In circular motion the acceleration from the centrifugal force is
ae = rw2.
Where
ae = accn from the centrifugal force in m/s2
r = radial distance from the centre of rotation in m.
w = angular velocity in rad/s.
The centrifugal force Fc in N acting on the particle is given by

FC  m.ae  m.rw 2
VC
Since angular velocity
w
r
VC  Velocity along the circular path or tangential velocity of the
particle in m/s
Vc2 mVc2
 Fc  mr. 2 
r r
Often rotational speeds are given as N rev/min and
2N 60 Vc
w , N 
60 2r
Now the gravitational force on a particle is Fg = mg.

Fc mVc 2 Vc2
 Separation factor  / mg 
Fg r rg
Higher the separation factor, the better is the performance of the
cyclone.
Now we will use a centrifugal equivalent of stake's law. we obtained
stokes law i.e.
Vt  g D p
2
 p  / 18

By equating the gravitational minus buoyant force to the stokes form

of the drag force. Normally we drop the buoyant terms for particle in
gases because it is small.
To obtain the centrifugal equivalent, we need to only substitute the
centrifugal force for the gravitational force (or the centrifugal
acceleration for the gravitational acceleration. Since the mass are
equal. (or substitute ae for g) i.e.

Vc2 2
g by or by w r
r

Doing this poses a problem because now there are two velocities in
the equation that are not the same. To save confusion we will call
the terminal settling velocity in the radial direction V t and the
Above figure shows another Vt due to gravity (assuming the axis of
the circle is vertical).
Vt the terminal settling velocity we calculate, is a velocity in the
radial direction at right angle to the main circular motion of the
particle.
Substituting in strokes law (g as rw2)

g d  p  
2 rw 2 d p2  p  
Vt 
p

18 18

vt  r
V
c
d
2 2
p  p   
Vc d p  p  
2 2

r 2
18u g 18  g r
Cyclone separator operation
•In operation, the particle laden gas upon entering the
cyclone cylinder receives a rotating motion
•The vortex so formed develops a centrifugal force, which
acts to throw the particles radially towards the wall.
•The gas spiral downward to the bottom of the cylinder,
and at the bottom the gas flow reverses to form an inner
vortex which leaves through the outlet pipe.
Length of Cylinder L1 = 2D
Length of Cone L2 = 2D
Dia of exit De = ½ D
Height of entrance h = ½ D
Width or entrance = ¼ D
Dia of dust exit Dd = ¼ D
Length of exit duct L3 = 1/8 D
As the sketch shows, a cyclone consists of a vertical cylindrical
body, with a dust outlet at the comical bottom. The gas enters
through a rectangular inlet, normally twice as high as it is wide
arranged tangentially to the circular body of the cyclone, so that the
entering gas flows around the circumference of the cylindrical body,
not radically inward.
The gas spirals around the outer part of the cylindrical body with a
downward component, then turns &spirals upward, leaving through
the outlet at the top of the device, during the outer spiral of the gas
the particles are driven to the wall by centrifugal force, where they
collect attach to each other, and form longer agglomerates that side
down the wall by gravity and collect in the dust hopper in the
bottom.
Clearly the cyclone separator sketched in above figure is merely a
gravity settler that has been made in the form of two concentric
helices. Only the outer helix contributes to collection, particles that
get into the inner helix which flows upward to the gas outlet escape
uncollected.
Thus the outer helix is equivalent to the gravity settler. The inlet
stream has a height Wi in the radial direction. So that the maximum
distance any particle must move to reach the wall is W i.
The comparable distance in gravity settler is H or H. The
length of the flow path is ND , where N is the number of
turns that the gas makes traversing the outer helix of the cyclone,
before it enters the inner helix & D is the diameter of the cyclone.
This length of the flow path corresponds to L in the gravity
H
settler. Substituting = WiN&DL = in efficiency
equation for gravity settler.

L Vt ND.Vt
 gravity    cent , V  Vc
Vc .H Vc .wi
V d  p  
c
2 2
p
Substituting Vt 
18 g .r
 ND.Vc2 d p2 e p  e 
centrs  
vc . g .r.18.wi

N d p2 Vc e p  e 
centr 
9  g wi

Generally assume N = 5 because no satisfactory theoretical basis for

calculating N from fluid mechanical principles.
Cut-diameter : It gives a measure of the size of particles caught and
the size passed for a particle collector.
The universal convention in the air pollution literature is to define
cut diameter as the diameter of a particle for which the efficiency
curve has the value of 0.50 I.e. 50 percent.
Substitution this definition in the above efficiency equation and
solve for the cut diameter that follows stokes law or size of those
particles that are collected with 50% efficiency.

Nd p2 cut Vc e p  e 
0.50 
9  g wi

1
 9 wi   2
d cut   
 2N V e  e 
 C p 
 Filters

Filtration is the oldest and generally one of the most

versatile and efficient methods for removing particulates
matter from industrial gases .
Filters are classified as either a packed filter or a fabric
filter, depending on the way in which the fibres are held in
place.
In packed filter the fibres are loosely packed inside an
enclosure where the dust laden gas takes a long path on its
way through the filter.
 Fabric Filters

• In a fabric filter, fibers are woven into a thin layer of

fabric (bag filters) usually made from natural,
synthetic, metal, or glass fibers.

• Fabric filters are the most commonly used particle

collectors in industry where as packed filters find
wide use in air conditioning and other applications
where the dust loading is relatively small.
 Packed filters
• In principle, the dust laden gas passes through the
filter in which the particulates are trapped on to the
fibres by the mechanisms of
• Inertial Impaction
• Direct Interception
• Diffusion
 Packed filters
Inertial Impaction
• This occurs when the particle with high inertia follows a
fluid streamline, but as it approaches the fiber its
trajectory departs from the fluid streamline around the
fibre.
• The departure of the particle from the streamline may be
sufficient to allow the particle to deposit on the curved
surface
 Packed filters
Direct Interception
• In this mechanism, the particles have less inertia and
almost follow the streamlines around the obstruction.
• The particle clear the obstacle but their outer peripheries
come in contact with the fiber.
• Thus, if particle’s center is travelling on streamline
which is closer than the radius of the particle, the
particle will touch the fiber and will be intercepted
 Packed filters
Diffusion
• Diffusion mechanism is important for particles that are
in the submicron range- (0.001-0.05μm).
• These particles usually do not follow the gas
streamlines surrounding the fiber because the
individual motion of the particles can be affected by
their collisions with gas molecules.
• The zigzag random Brownian motion causes the
particles to impinge and adhere to the surface of the
fiber.
 Fabric Filters
In fabric filters, the open spaces in woven fabrics are
usually many time the size of the individual particle.
Because of this, the collection efficiency in the initial
stages is rather poor.

After a short period of operation, the captured particles

form a bridge across the cloth openings and a particle
layer forms which improves the collection efficiently
greatly.

Fabric filters usually provide collection efficiencies

exceeding 99% .
 Fabric Filter systems ( Baghouse)
• It typically consists of a tubular bag or envelope,
suspended or mounted in such a manner that the
collected particles fall into a hopper when dislodged
from the fabric.
•The structure in which the bags hang is known as a
baghouse.
•Generally, particle laden gas enters the bag at the
bottom and passes through the fabric while the particles
are deposited on the inside of the bag.
•Large beghouses are constructed with several
compartments, so that one compartment may be isolated
for cleaning as needed while the other compartments are
operating.
 Wet Scrubbers
• Wet precipitation is the principal mechanism by
which atmospheric particles are removed by nature.
• This idea has been exploited by industry to develop a
variety of liquid scrubbing equipment.
• Wet scrubbers have a no of advantages over dry
collectors, such as simultaneous removal of particles
and gaseous pollutants
• But suffer from the problems of corrosion and liquid
waste disposal.
 Wet Scrubbers
• The basic function of wet scrubbers is to be provide
contact between the scrubbing liquid, usually water, and
the particulate to be collected.
• This contact can be achieved in a variety of ways as the
particles are confronted with so called impaction targets
which can be wetted surfaces or individual droplets.
• Whether the particles encounter wetted surfaces as in
packed scrubbers or individual droplets as in spray
scrubbers, the basic collection mechanisms are the same
as in filters ( inertial impaction, interception , diffusion)
 Wet Scrubbers
There are many scrubber design presently available
where the contact between the scrubbing liquid and the
particles is achieved in a variety of ways.
Contact devices
• Spray Towers
• Centrifugal scrubbers
• Packed beds and plate columns
• Venturi Scrubbers
Low energy
Scrubbers such as
spray towers are
most often used to
handle particles
largely about 5-10
µm in dia.
 The η for particles <
than those recovered
in spray towers can be
increased through the
use of centrifugal
scrubbers.
• Venturi scrubbers offer high performance collection of
fine particles, usually smaller than 3 µm in dia.
•They are particularly suitable when the particulate matter
is sticky, flammable or highly corrosive.
The high performance of the venturi scrubbers is achieved
by accelerating the gas stream to very high velocities of the
order 60-120 m/s.

The high speed action atomizes the feed liquid , generally

introduced in a uniform fashion across the throat through
several low pressure spray nozzles directed radically
inward.

The droplets accelerate in the throat section and due to

velocity difference between the particles and the droplets,
the particles are impacted against the slow moving
droplets.
This acceleration of the droplets is not likely to be
completed at the end of the throat, so that particle
collection continues to some extent into the diverging
section of the venturi.

The gas liquid mixture is then directed to a separation

device such as a cyclone separator where the droplets
carrying the particulate matter are separated from the gas
stream.
 Electrostatic Precipitator
Electrostatic precipitator is a physical process by which
particles suspended in gas stream are charged electrically
and under the influence of the electrical field, separated
from the gas stream.
It is used in power plants, cement and paper mills to oil
refineries.
 Electrostatic Precipitator
• It consists of a positively charged
(grounded) collecting surface and a
high – voltage discharge electrode wire
suspended from an insulator at the top
and held in position by a weight at the
bottom.
• At a very high DC voltage, of the
order of 50kV, a corona discharge
occurs close to the negative electrode,
setting up an electric field between the
emitter and grounded surface.
• The particle-laden gas enters near the
bottom and flows upward. The gas close to
the negative electrode is, thus, ionized upon
passing through the corona. As the negative
ions and electrons migrate towards the
grounded surface, they in turn charge the
passing particles. The electrostatic filed
draws the particles to the collector surface
where they are deposited.
 Electrostatic Precipitator
• Periodically, the collected particles must be removed form the
collecting surface.
• This is done by rapping or vibrating the collector to dislodge the
particles.
• The dislodged particles drop below the electrical treatment zone
and are collected for ultimate disposal.
 Electrostatic Precipitator : Types

Cylindrical Type Plate type

 Electrostatic Precipitator

Collection Efficiency:
The collection efficiency of an electrostatic precipitator as
a function of gas flow rate and precipitator size is given by
the Deutsch equation which is applicable to both
cylindrical and parallel plate type precipitators.
 Electrostatic Precipitator
Consider a precipitator of an arbitrary geometry with a cross section
A and length L as shown in figure below. It is assumed that the
particle distribution over the cross-sectional area is constant.
 Electrostatic Precipitator
• A particle that has entered the
precipitator and received an
electric charge moves along a
trajectory towards the
collection electrode as shown
in fig.

• This trajectory can be resolved into the axial z-component with

a velocity vpz and a y-component with a velocity vpm.
• The particle velocity vpz is equal to the gas velocity v in the
axial direction
Writing a mass balance across the differential element dz for the
steady operation with no net accumulation of the particles in the
gas phase.
 Electrostatic Precipitator

Mass in – mass out ± generation/depletion= accumulation

CAv t/z- CAv t/z+ z – C vpm P z t = 0

Where P z is collector area.

P is perimeter; C is kg/m3 of gas;

 Using definition of the derivative, above equation
for z 0
dC v pm P
 dz
C v A

Integrating Eq. above equation over the length L for

concentrations from Co to CL we get

CL  v pm P 
 exp  L 
C0  v A 
 The collection efficiency  is defined as
CL
  1
C0
Substitution of Eq. (5.43) into Eq. (5.44) gives:
 v pm P 
  1  exp  L 
 v A 
Nothing that Av = Q, the volumetric flow rate of the gas,
and that the product pL is equal to the collector surface
area Ac, we may write Eq. (5.45) as
 v pm Ac 
  1  exp  
 Q 
 This is the well known equation for the collection
efficiency of a precipitator obtained by Deutsch and it can
be used for both tubular and plate type precipitators.
Above equation may be written in the following form:
Writing A = V/L
 v pm Ac L 
  1  exp  
 v V 
Where V = volume of the precipitator.
For a cylindrical type collector Ac/V = 4/Dc, and for a
parallel plate type collector Ac/V = 2/S, S being the
distance between the two parallel plates.
 Control of Gaseous Emissions
There are essentially two classes of techniques by which
gaseous pollutants may be removed from an effluent
stream:
• Sorption of pollutant i) Absorption ii) Adsorption
• Chemical alteration of the pollutant i) combustion ii)
catalytic treatment
 Adsorption by Solids
Adsorption is a surface phenomenon by which gas or
liquid molecules are captured by and adhere to the
surface of a solid adsorbent.