Chapter 11- Properties of

Solutions

Sections 13.1 - 13.3

Dissolving Solubility
Read pg 529 – 543
pg 564 #1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 12, 13, 17, 19,
22, 25, 27, 29, 31, 84
 Solutions

• Solutions are homogeneous mixtures of two

or more pure substances.
• In a solution, the solute is dispersed uniformly
throughout the solvent.
 Solutions

The intermolecular
forces between solute
and solvent particles
must be strong enough
to compete with those
between solute particles
and those between
solvent particles.
How Does a Solution Form?

As a solution forms, the solvent pulls solute

particles apart and surrounds, or solvates,
them.
How Does a Solution Form

If an ionic salt is
soluble in water, it is
because the ion-
dipole interactions
are strong enough
to overcome the
lattice energy of the
salt crystal.
From weakest to strongest, rank the
following solutions in terms of solvent–
solute interactions: NaCl in water, butane
(C4H10) in benzene (C6H6), water in ethanol.

1. NaCl in water < C4H10 in C6H6 < water in ethanol

2. Water in ethanol < NaCl in water < C4H10 in
C6H6
3. C4H10 in C6H6 < water in ethanol < NaCl in
water
 Correct Answer:
1. NaCl in water < C4H10 in C6H6 < water in ethanol
2. Water in ethanol < NaCl in water < C4H10 in
C6H6
3. C4H10 in C6H6 < water in ethanol < NaCl in
Butane
water in benzene will have
only weak dispersion force
interactions. Water in
ethanol will exhibit much
stronger hydrogen-bonding
interactions. However, NaCl
in water will show ion–dipole
interactions because NaCl
will dissolve into ions.
 Energy Changes in Solution
• Simply put, three
processes affect the
energetics of the
process:
Separation of solute
particles
Separation of solvent
particles
New interactions between
solute and solvent
Energy Changes in Solution

The enthalpy
change of the
overall
process
depends on
H for each of
these steps.
 Why Do Endothermic
Processes Occur?
Things do not tend
to occur
spontaneously (i.e.,
without outside
intervention) unless
the energy of the
system is lowered.
Why Do Endothermic
Processes Occur?

Yet we know that

in some
processes, like
the dissolution of
NH4NO3 in water,
heat is absorbed,
not released.
 Student, Beware!

Just because a substance disappears when it

comes in contact with a solvent, it doesn’t
mean the substance dissolved.
 Student, Beware!

• Dissolution is a physical change—you can get back

the original solute by evaporating the solvent.
• If you can’t, the substance didn’t dissolve, it reacted.
Types of Solutions
• Saturated
Solvent holds as much
solute as is possible at
that temperature.
Dissolved solute is in
dynamic equilibrium
with solid solute
particles.
 Types of Solutions

• Unsaturated
Less than the
maximum amount
of solute for that
temperature is
dissolved in the
solvent.
 Types of Solutions

• Supersaturated
Solvent holds more solute than is normally
possible at that temperature.
These solutions are unstable; crystallization can
usually be stimulated by adding a “seed crystal” or
scratching the side of the flask.
 Factors Affecting Solubility

• Chemists use the

axiom “like dissolves
like”:
Polar substances tend
to dissolve in polar
solvents.
Nonpolar substances
tend to dissolve in
nonpolar solvents.
Factors Affecting Solubility

The more similar

the intermolecular
attractions, the
more likely one
substance is to be
soluble in
another.
 Factors Affecting Solubility
Glucose (which has
hydrogen bonding)
is very soluble in
water, while
cyclohexane (which
only has dispersion
forces) is not.
 Factors Affecting Solubility
• Vitamin A is soluble in nonpolar
compounds (like fats).
• Vitamin C is soluble in water.
SAMPLE EXERCISE 13.2 Predicting Solubility Patterns

Predict whether each of the following

substances is more likely to dissolve in carbon
tetrachloride (CCl4) or in water: C7H16, Na2SO4,
HCl, and I2.
Solution C7H16is a hydrocarbon, so it is molecular
and nonpolar. Na2SO4, a compound containing a
metal and nonmetals, is ionic; HCl, a diatomic
molecule containing two nonmetals that differ in
electronegativity, is polar; and I 2, a diatomic
molecule with atoms of equal electronegativity, is
nonpolar. We would therefore predict that C 7H16
and I2 would be more soluble in the nonpolar CCl 4
than in polar H2O, whereas water would be the
SAMPLE EXERCISE 13.2 continued

PRACTICE EXERCISE
Arrange the following substances in order of
increasing solubility in water:

Answer: C5H12 < C5H11 Cl < C5H11 OH <

C5H10(OH)2 (in order of increasing polarity and
hydrogen-bonding ability)
Temperature

Generally, the
solubility of solid
solutes in liquid
solvents
increases with
increasing
temperature.
 Temperature
• The opposite is true
of gases:
Carbonated soft
drinks are more
“bubbly” if stored in
the refrigerator.
Warm lakes have
less O2 dissolved in
them than cool lakes.
 Gases in Solution

• In general, the
solubility of gases
in water increases
with increasing
mass.
• Larger molecules
have stronger
dispersion forces.
Gases in Solution
• The solubility of liquids
and solids does not
change appreciably with
pressure.
• The solubility of a gas in
a liquid is directly
proportional to its
pressure.
 Henry’s Law
Sg = kPg
where
• Sg is the solubility of
the gas;
• k is the Henry’s law
constant for that gas in
that solvent;
• Pg is the partial
pressure of the gas
above the liquid.
At a certain temperature, the Henry’s law
constant for N2 is 6.0  104 M/atm. If N2 is
present at 3.0 atm, what is the solubility
of N2?

1. 6.0  104 M
2. 1.8  103 M
3. 2.0  104 M
4. 5.0  105 M
 Correct Answer:

1. 6.0  104 M Henry’s law,

2. 1.8  103 M
3. 2.0  104 M
Sg = kPg
4. 5.0  105 M

Sg = (6.0  104 M/atm)(3.0 atm)

S = 1.8  103 M
SAMPLE EXERCISE 13.3 A Henry’s Law Calculation
Calculate the concentration of CO2 in a
soft drink that is bottled with a partial
pressure of CO2 of 4.0 atm over the liquid
at 25°C. The Henry’s law constant for
CO2 in water at this temperature is 3.1 
10–2 mol/L-atm.
Solve: 2

Check: The units are correct for solubility, and the

answer has two significant figures consistent with
both the partial pressure of CO2 and the value of
Henry’s constant.
 Chapter 11- Properties of
Solutions

Section 13.4
Ways of Expressing
Concentrations of Solutions
Read pg 529 – 543
pg 564 #1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 12, 13, 17, 19,
22, 25, 27, 29, 31, 84
 Mass Percentage

mass of A in solution
Mass % of A =  100
total mass of solution
Determine the mass percentage of
hexane in a solution containing 11 g
of butane in 110 g of hexane.

1.9.0 %
2.10. %
3.90.%
4.91 %
 Correct Answer:
1. 9.0 %
2. 10. %
3. 90.%
4. 91 %
mass of component in solution
mass % of component  100
total mass of solution

Thus,

110 g  100 = 91%

(110 g + 11 g)
 Parts per Million and
Parts per Billion
Parts per Million (ppm)
mass of A in solution
ppm =  106
total mass of solution

Parts per Billion (ppb)

mass of A in solution
ppb =  109
total mass of solution
If 3.6 mg of Na+ is detected in a 200 g
sample of water from Lake Erie, what
is its concentration in ppm?

1. 7.2 ppm
2. 1.8 ppm
3. 18 ppm
4. 72 ppm
 Correct Answer:
1. 7.2 ppm
2. 1.8 ppm
3. 18 ppm
4. 72 ppm
mass of component in solution
ppm of component  106
total mass of solution
3.6 mg 0.0036 g
  10 6  18 ppm
200. g 200. g
 Mole Fraction (X)

moles of A
XA =
total moles in solution

• In some applications, one needs the

mole fraction of solvent, not solute—
make sure you find the quantity you
need!
 Molarity (M)

mol of solute
M=
L of solution

• You will recall this concentration

measure from Chapter 4.
• Because volume is temperature
dependent, molarity can change with
temperature.
 Molality (m)

mol of solute
m=
kg of solvent

Because both moles and mass do

not change with temperature,
molality (unlike molarity) is not
temperature dependent.
 What is the molality of 6.4 g of methanol
(CH3OH) dissolved in 50. moles of water?

1. 0.040 m
2. 0.22 m
3. 0.064 m
4. 0.11 m
 Correct Answer:
1. 0.040 m
2. 0.22 m
3. 0.064 m
4. 0.11 m
(6.4 g methanol)/(32.0 g/mol)
m
(50 mol water)(18 .0 g/mol)(1 kg/1000g)
(0.20 mol)
m  0.22 m
(0.90 kg)
Changing Molarity to Molality

If we know the
density of the
solution, we can
calculate the
molality from
the molarity,
and vice versa.
SAMPLE EXERCISE 13.5 Calculation of Molality
A solution is made by dissolving 4.35 g glucose
(C6H12O6) in 25.0 mL of water at 25°C. Calculate the
molality of glucose in the solution.

Solution molar mass of glucose, 180.2 g/mol

water has a density of 1.00 g/mL, so the mass of the solvent is

 Chapter 11- Properties of
Solutions

Section 13.5 & 13.6

Colligative Properties &
Colloids
Read pg 529 – 543
pg 564 #1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 12, 13, 17, 19,
22, 25, 27, 29, 31, 84
 Colligative Properties
• Changes in colligative properties
depend only on the number of solute
particles present, not on the identity of
the solute particles.
• Among colligative properties are
Vapor pressure lowering
Boiling point elevation
Melting point depression
Osmotic pressure
 Vapor Pressure
Because of solute-
solvent
intermolecular
attraction, higher
concentrations of
nonvolatile solutes
make it harder for
solvent to escape to
the vapor phase.
 Vapor Pressure

Therefore, the
vapor pressure of
a solution is
lower than that of
the pure solvent.
 Raoult’s Law
PA = XAPA
where
• XA is the mole fraction of compound A
• PA is the normal vapor pressure of A at that
temperature

NOTE: This is one of those times when you

want to make sure you have the vapor
pressure of the solvent.
At a certain temperature, water has a
vapor pressure of 90.0 torr. Calculate
the vapor pressure of a water solution
containing 0.080 mole sucrose and 0.72
mole water.
1. 9.0 torr 4. 81. torr
2. 10. torr 5. 90. torr
3. 80. torr
 Correct Answer:
1. 9.0 torr
2. 10. torr
3. 80. torr Pi  P i total
4. 81. torr
5. 90. torr
Pi = XiPtotal

Pi = (0.72 mol/[0.72 + 0.080 mol])(90.0 torr)

Pi = (0.90)(90.0 torr) = 81. torr

 Boiling Point Elevation and
Freezing Point Depression
Nonvolatile solute-
solvent interactions
also cause solutions
to have higher
boiling points and
lower freezing
points than the pure
solvent.
 Boiling Point Elevation
The change in boiling
point is proportional to
the molality of the
solution:
Tb = Kb  m

where Kb is the molal

boiling point elevation
Tb is added to the constant, a property of
the solvent.
normal boiling point
of the solvent.
Ethanol normally boils at 78.4°C. The
boiling point elevation constant for
ethanol is 1.22°C/m. What is the boiling
point of a 1.0 m solution of CaCl2 in
ethanol?
1. 77.2°C 4. 82.1°C
2. 79.6°C 5. 83.3°C
3. 80.8°C
 Correct Answer:
1. 77.2°C
2. 79.6°C
3. 80.8°C
4. 82.1°C T b  K b m
5. 83.3°C

The increase in boiling point is determined by the

molality of total particles in the solution. Thus, a
1.0 m solution of CaCl2 contains 1.0 m Ca2+ and

2.0 m Cl for a total of 3.0 m. Thus, the boiling
point is elevated 3.7°C, so it is 78.4°C + 3.7°C =
82.1°C.
 Freezing Point Depression
• The change in
freezing point can be
found similarly:
Tf = Kf  m

• Here Kf is the molal

freezing point
Tf is subtracted from the depression constant
normal freezing point of the of the solvent.
solvent.
 Boiling Point Elevation and
Freezing Point Depression

Note that in both Tb = Kb  m

equations, T
does not depend
on what the
solute is, but only Tf = Kf  m
on how many
particles are
dissolved.
 Colligative Properties of
Electrolytes
Since these properties depend on the number
of particles dissolved, solutions of electrolytes
(which dissociate in solution) should show
greater changes than those of nonelectrolytes.
 Colligative Properties of
Electrolytes
However, a 1 M solution of NaCl does not
show twice the change in freezing point
that a 1 M solution of methanol does.
van’t Hoff Factor

One mole of
NaCl in water
does not really
give rise to two
moles of ions.
van’t Hoff Factor
Some Na+ and Cl−
reassociate for a short
time, so the true
concentration of
particles is a little less
than two times the
concentration of NaCl.
 The van’t Hoff Factor
• Reassociation is
more likely at higher
concentration.
• Therefore, the
number of particles
present is
concentration
dependent.
 The van’t Hoff Factor
We modify the
previous equations
by multiplying by
the van’t Hoff
factor, i

Tf = Kf  m  i
PRACTICE EXERCISE
Which of the following solutes will produce
the largest increase in boiling point upon
addition to 1 kg of water: 1 mol of Co(NO3)2,
2 mol of KCl, 3 mol of ethylene glycol
(C2H6O2)?
Answer: 2 mol of KCl because it contains
the highest concentration of particles, 2 m K+
and 2 m Cl–, giving 4 m in all
 Osmosis
• Some substances form semipermeable
membranes, allowing some smaller
particles to pass through, but blocking
other larger particles.
• In biological systems, most
semipermeable membranes allow water
to pass through, but solutes are not free
to do so.
 Osmosis
In osmosis, there is net movement of
solvent from the area of higher
solvent concentration (lower
solute concentration) to the area of lower
solvent concentration (higher solute concentration).
 Osmotic Pressure
• The pressure required to stop osmosis,
known as osmotic pressure, , is

n
=( ) RT = MRT
V
where M is the molarity of the solution

If the osmotic pressure is the same on both

sides of a membrane (i.e., the concentrations
are the same), the solutions are isotonic.
 QuickTime™ and a
Sorenson Video 3 decompressor
are needed to see this picture.
At 30 oC, the osmotic pressure of a
solution is 0.546 atm. What is its
concentration of the solute?
 Osmosis in Blood Cells
• If the solute
concentration outside
the cell is greater than
that inside the cell, the
solution is hypertonic.

• Water will flow out of

the cell, and crenation
results.
 Osmosis in Cells
• If the solute
concentration outside the
cell is less than that
inside the cell, the
solution is hypotonic.

• Water will flow into the

cell, and hemolysis
results.
SAMPLE EXERCISE 13.11 Calculations Involving Osmotic Pressure

The average osmotic pressure of blood is 7.7

atm at 25°C. What concentration of glucose
(C6H12O6) will be isotonic with blood?
Solution
Plan: Given the osmotic pressure and temperature, we can solve for
the concentration, using Equation 13.13.
Solve:

PRACTICE EXERCISE
What is the osmotic pressure at 20°C of a 0.0020
M sucrose (C12H22O11) solution?
Answer: 0.048 atm, or 37 torr
 Molar Mass from
Colligative Properties
We can use the
effects of a
colligative property
such as osmotic
pressure to
determine the
molar mass of a
compound.
 SAMPLE EXERCISE 13.12 Molar Mass from Freezing-Point Depression
A solution of an unknown nonvolatile electrolyte was prepared
by dissolving 0.250 g of the substance in 40.0 g of CCl4. The
boiling point of the resultant solution was 0.357°C higher than
that of the pure solvent. Calculate the molar mass of the solute.
Solution
Plan: Kb for the solvent (CCl4)= 5.02ºC/m. Tb = Kbm.
Solve:
The solution contains 0.0711 mol of solute per kilogram of solvent. The
solution was prepared using 40.0 g = 0.0400 kg of solvent (CCl 4). The
number of moles of solute in the solution is therefore
PRACTICE EXERCISE
Camphor (C10H16O) melts at 179.8°C, and it
has a particularly large freezing-point-
depression constant, Kf = 40.0ºC/m. When
0.186 g of an organic substance of unknown
molar mass is dissolved in 22.01 g of liquid
camphor, the freezing point of the mixture is
found to be 176.7°C. What is the molar
mass of the solute?

Answer: 110 g/mol

 SAMPLE EXERCISE 13.13 Molar Mass from Osmotic Pressure
The osmotic pressure of an aqueous solution of a certain protein
was measured in order to determine the protein’s molar mass.
The solution contained 3.50 mg of protein dissolved in sufficient
water to form 5.00 mL of solution. The osmotic pressure of the
solution at 25°C was found to be 1.54 torr. Calculate the molar
mass of the protein.
Solution Plan: The temperature (T = 25ºC) and osmotic pressure ( = 1.54 torr) are
given, and we know the value of R so we can use Equation 13.13 to calculate the molarity of the
solution, M. In doing so, we must convert temperature from °C to K and the osmotic pressure
from torr to atm. We then use the molarity and the volume of the solution (5.00 mL) to determine
the number of moles of solute. Finally, we obtain the molar mass by dividing the mass of the
solute (3.50 mg) by the number of moles of solute.
Solve: Solving Equation 13.13 for molarity gives

Because the volume of the solution is 5.00 ml = 5.00  10–3 L, the number of
moles of protein must be
 SAMPLE EXERCISE 13.13 continued

The molar mass is the number of grams per mole of the

substance. The sample has a mass of 3.50 mg = 3.50  10–3g.
The molar mass is the number of grams divided by the number
of moles:

Comment: Because small pressures can be measured easily and

accurately, osmotic pressure measurements provide a useful way to
determine the molar masses of large molecules.

PRACTICE EXERCISE
A sample of 2.05 g of polystyrene of uniform polymer chain
length was dissolved in enough toluene to form 0.100 L of
solution. The osmotic pressure of this solution was found to
be 1.21 kPa at 25°C. Calculate the molar mass of the
polystyrene.
Answer: 4.20  104 g/mol
 Colloids:
Suspensions of particles larger than
individual ions or molecules, but too
small to be settled out by gravity.
Tyndall Effect
• Colloidal suspensions
can scatter rays of light.
• This phenomenon is
known as the Tyndall
effect.
Which of the following is not an
example of a colloid?

1. Fog
2. Smoke
3. Paint
4. Milk
5. Carbonated water
 Correct Answer:

1. Fog
2. Smoke
3. Paint
4. Milk
5. Carbonated water

Carbonated water is a
solution; all the other
substances in the list
are excellent examples
of colloids.
Colloids in Biological Systems

Some molecules
have a polar,
hydrophilic (water-
loving) end and a
nonpolar,
hydrophobic
(water-hating) end.
Colloids in Biological Systems

Sodium
stearate is
one
example
of such a
molecule.
 Colloids in Biological Systems

These
molecules can
aid in the
emulsification
of fats and oils
in aqueous
solutions.